PSY 1600 Exam Study Guide PDF

Chapter 1 Different types of development; physical, cognitive, social, personality (s + p are one domain) 1. physical - body's physical make up, including the brain, nervous system, muscles, and senses, and the need for food, drink, and sleep 2. cognitive - development involvi...

Chapter 1 Different types of development; physical, cognitive, social, personality (s + p are one domain) 1. physical - body's physical make up, including the brain, nervous system, muscles, and senses, and the need for food, drink, and sleep 2. cognitive - development involving the ways that growth and change in intellectual capabilities influence a person's behavior Social - the way in which individuals' interactions with others and their social relationships grow, change, and remain stable other the course of life Personality - development involving the ways that the enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another change in over the life span Id, ego, superego - personality has three aspects 1. id - raw, unorganized, inborn part of personality that is present at birth 2. ego - part of the personality that is rational and reasonable; mediator 3. super ego - a person's conscience, incorporating distinctions between right and wrong Theoretical perspectives (psychodynamic perspective, psychoanalytic, information processing perspective, contextual perspective, evolutionary) 1. psychodynamic - behavior throughout life is motivated by inner unconscious forces, stemming from childhood, and is generally beyond people's awareness and control psychoanalytic= the theory proposed by Freud that suggests that unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior Freud’s psychosexual stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, etc) - oral → anal → phallic → latency→ genital - oral = birth to 12-18 months; interest in oral gratification from sucking and eating - anal= 12-18 months to 3 years; going to the bathroom - phallic= 3-5/6 years; interest in genitals coming to terms with oedipal conflict and identifying themselves with a same sex parent  - latency= 5-6 years to adolescence sexual concerts are not important with the child- boys and girls have cooties - Adolescence to adulthood (freud)= reemergence of sexual interests and establishments psychosocial= the approach that encompasses changes in our interactions with and understandings of one another, as in our knowledge and understanding of ourselves as members of society Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development 1. Birth - 12 to 18 months = Trust VS. Mistrust 2. 12 to 18 months - 3 years= Autonomy VS shame and doubt 3. 3 to 5-6 years= Initiative VS. Guilt 4. 5-6 years to adolescence= Industry VS. Inferiority 5. Adolescence= Identity vs. Role diffusion 6. Early adulthood= Intimacy VS. isolation 7. Middle adulthood= Generality VS stagnation 8. Late adulthood= Ego-integrity vs. despair 2. Behavioral (watson, skinner, and bandura ) - development can be understood through studying observable behavior and environmental stimuli classical conditioning (association) - a type of learning in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response operant conditioning - a type of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences; associated with Skinner social cognitive learning (modeling); Bandura - learning by observing the behavior of another person (who is a model) - behavior is learned primarily through observation/imitation and not through trial and error (which is part of operant conditioning) - psychologist associated with observational learning = Bandura 3. Humanistic (rogers and maslow)  - behavior is chosen through free will and motivated by our natural capacity to strive to reach our full potential 4. Contextual (bronfenbrenner and vygotsky) - development should be viewed in terms of the interrelationship of a person’s physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds - contextual suggests that a person’s unique development cannot be properly viewed without seeing how that person is enmeshed within a rich social and cultural context Bronfenbrenner - Biolecological perspective= the perspective suggesting that different levels of the environment simultaneously influence individuals Bronfenbrenner’s 5 levels 1. Microsystem - everyday, immediate environment in which children lead their daily lives (caregivers, teachers, friends) 2. Mesosystem - provides connections between various aspects of the microsystem; children is to parent as student is to teacher 3. Exosystem - broader influences, encompassing societal institutions 4. Macrosystem - LARGER cultural influences on an individual; types of governments, religious and political value systems, etc. 5. chronosystem - underlies each of the previous systems; involves passage of time and historical changes Vygotsky - Sociocultural theory= approach that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture 5. Evolutionary (Darwin and Lorenz) - behavior is the result of genetic inheritance from our ancestors; traits and behavior that are adaptive for promoting the survival of our species have been inherited through natural selection Information processing (approach) - models that seek to identify the ways individuals take in, use and store information Sensitive vs critical periods of development - critical= a specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequences and the presence of certain kinds of environment stimuli is necessary for development to proceed normally - sensitive= a point in development when organisms are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in their environments, but the absence of those stimuli does not always produce irreversible consequences Three questions psychologists ask about development: monoism vs.dualism, discontinuous vs continuous, nature vs nurture 1. Monoism vs dualism - 2. Discontinuous vs continuous change - Continuous = gradual development in which achievements at one level build on those of previous levels - discontinuous= development that occurs in distinct steps or stages, with each stage bringing about behavior that is assumed to be qualitatively different from behavior at earlier stages - some forms of development fall toward the continuous end of the continuum, whereas others lie closer to the discontinuous end 3. Nature vs nurture - how much of people’s behavior is due to nature and how much is due to nurture? - nature= traits, abilities, and capacities that are inherited from one’s parents (genes) - it encompasses any factor that is produced by the predetermined unfolding of genetic information (maturation) - nurture= environmental influences that shape behavior - behavior is NOT SOLELY the result of either nature or nurture; it’s a mix of both psychologist associated with cognitive development= Piaget Piaget’s concepts of schemas, assimilation, accommodation (all part of his cognitive theory) - Human thinking is arranged into schemes, organized mental patterns that represent behaviors and actions - In infants, such schemes represent concrete behavior—a scheme for sucking, for reaching, and for each separate behavior - growth in children’s understanding of the world can be explained by assimilation and accommodation  - Assimilation= process through which people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking - Assimilation occurs when people use their current ways of thinking about and understanding the world to perceive and understand a new experience - In contrast, accommodation refers to changes in existing ways of thinking in response to encounters with new stimuli or events - Assimilation + accommodation work in tandem to bring about cognitive development individualism vs. collectivism - individualism= dominant Western philosophy that emphasizes personal identity, uniqueness, freedom, and the worth of the individual - collectivism= the notion that the well-being of the group is more important than that of the individual - people raised in collectivistic cultures tend to emphasize the welfare of the groups to which they belong, sometimes even at the expense of their own personal well-being Chapter 2 - Genotype vs phenotype - Genetic counseling - Monozygotic vs dizygotic twins **** - Different stages of prenatal development (3) **** - Teratogens - Senses we’re born with; which ones are fully developed in the womb **** Chapters 3-6 ******* - Weight gain/physical growth during first year of life - SIDS (see slide); also, what helps to prevent that - Why can’t we move as quickly as newborns/infants; consider head size - Why are we born with variety of reflexes (examples of them) - Separation anxiety - Attachment patterns (4) - Trust vs mistrust, autonomy vs shame and doubt (first 2 stages of erikson) - Temperament vs personality