Psychology Exam Study Sheet PDF

Lecture #12 - Learning Types of learning - Classical - Operant conditioning - Observational learning - Classical conditioning (pairing ucs with cs to evoke a cr overtime) ▪ Pavlov – Russian psychologist ▪ Research in dog’s digestive system...

Lecture #12 - Learning Types of learning - Classical - Operant conditioning - Observational learning - Classical conditioning (pairing ucs with cs to evoke a cr overtime) ▪ Pavlov – Russian psychologist ▪ Research in dog’s digestive system Specifically, their salvation ▪ Noticed unusual behaviors ▪ Did surgical procedures where a gizmo was implanted in a dogs salivatory glad to collect saliva Increase salivation when dogs saw food o Terms (dog training with bell) ▪ Neutral stimulus ▪ Unconditioned stimulus ▪ Unconditioned response ▪ Conditioned stimulus ▪ Conditioned response o Other characteristics ▪ Extinction – cs alone ▪ Spontaneous recovery – cs alone ▪ Stimulus generalization ▪ Stimulus discrimination Drops of saliva – dependent variable - Operant conditioning o B.F. Skinner – Behaviorist o Learning takes places influenced by outcomes ▪ When this happens something else happens ▪ Learn from past ▪ Reinforce behavior when it occurs ▪ “One trial” - one event creates learning opportunities o Charecteristics Shaping Extinction Stimulus generalization Stimulus discrimination ▪ ABC idea Antecedent Behavior Consequence Something happens, behavioral response, consequence o Reinforcement ▪ Delayed reinforcement Speeding ticket – delayed fine Not as influential or immediately ▪ Intermittent reinforcement – schedules Fixed ratio – reinforcement depends on a definite number of responses) o Reinforcement occurs after a certain amount of times o Not every time but every 10 times ex o High frequency response Fixed interval – reinforcement depends on a fixed time o Lags – timed interval o Goes up and down ▪ Down when no reinforcements ▪ Up whehn reinforcements Variable ratio – number of responses needed for reinforcement varies o Reinforcement isn’t planned of organized o Randomized o High frequency response Variable interval – time between reinforcement varies o Steady responding  o Unknown in-between ▪ Positive reinforcement Increase in response Response strengthened ▪ Negative reinforcement Response strengthened with removal of aversive stimulus Avoidance learning Not punishment ▪ Punishment Event that reduces the tendency to make the response Getting a speeding ticket Negative punishment o Removal of rewarding stimulus o Kid didn’t stop talking therefore doesn’t get ice cream - Observational learning - o Observing others and seeing how others have messed up to learn o Watching what happens – behavior and consequences o Social learning theory: ▪ Modelling – mimic others interactions ▪ Role modelling ▪ Significant others ▪ Albert Bandura o Cognitive factors (personal factors) ▪ Knowledge ▪ Expectations ▪ Attitudes o Environmental factors ▪ Social norms ▪ Access on community ▪ Influence on others o Behavioural factors ▪ Skills ▪ Practice ▪ Self efficacy  - How can they be used in clinical psychology - Behavior modification o Structured o Empirical/quantitative o Reinforcement o Contingencies o Token economy o Can be used in corrections - Behavior modification - Systematic desensitization o Slowly introduce idea of fear ▪ Photos and slowly desensitize Lecture #13 – Thought and Language - Highly inter-related o Ability to express ideas and thoughts - Relationships o Ability to communicate o Language and cognition o Language is communication - Language o Social animals o Express and convey ▪ Thoughts ▪ Ideas ▪ Beliefs ▪ Emotions  o Verbal and non-verbal language/communication - Infinite generativity o Flexibility of human language – always evolving o The possibility of endless meaningful sentences - Rule systems o Phonology: a language's sound system o Morphology: a language’s rules for word formation o Syntax: rules for combining words into acceptable phrases and sentences o Semantics: meaning of words and sentences o Always evolving - Language acquistion o Biologically predistinded to speak o Interation between nature and nurture ▪ Chomsky Humans are biologically pre wired for langauage – nature ▪ Neurological shows regions of the brain for language Left hemisphere Brocas area Wernickes area How damage to these regions affects a person’s ability to communicate o Language and intelligence ▪ Verbal ability strongly linked theoretically and practically to intelligence o Development of lanaguage ▪ Critical period 18 months to onset puberty - Cognition and cognitive processes o Importance and role of thought, cognition, subjective experience has varied widely in psychology over the past 150 years ▪ Psychoanalysis ▪ Behaviorism ▪ Modern cognitive psychology – ai o Cognitions – affect – behavior - The experience of thought o Stream of consciousness – drift off ▪ Think about thinking o Subject experience of thought o Self-monitoring o Self-talk - Problem solving o Aspect of thinking o Steps - safece ▪ Specify the problem ▪ Analyze the problem ▪ Formulate possible solutions ▪ Evaluate possible solutions ▪ Choose a solution ▪ Evaluate outcome of solution - Decision making strategies o Consider the outcome each of strategy including short term and the long term o Compare alternatives o Evaluate possible negative side effects each alternative o Consider the risk involved in each alternative o Be creative, original; don’t eliminate unfamiliar alternatives - Critical thinking o Think mindfully o Analytically o Outside the box o Cognitive rigidity o Interplay with affect – emotion o Open minded - Influenced by o Beliefs  o Attitudes o Values o Sentiments - Cognitive distortions o Attributions o Personal responsibility o Projection of blame – a faucet of psychodynamic theory o NB” for the gamblers in the house: gamblers fallacy - Elementary my dear watson o Inductive reasoning ▪ Specific to general ▪ I see several cats that are black, all cats must be black o Deductive reasoning ▪ All dogs have 4 legs, my pet is a dog, my dog has four legs - Factors that influence decision-making CBOHARPI o Confirmatory bias ▪ Information that supports ideas – ignores contrary evidence o Belief perseverance ▪ Holding onto a belief despite the existence of contrary evidence o Over confidence bias ▪ Being more confident about judgments and decisions than is warranted by evidence and real probability of event or issue o Hindsight bias ▪ Over-confident about events and circumstances that have already occurred Overconfident about events and circumstances that have already occurred o Availability heuristic ▪ Prediction about the likelihood of an event occurring based on frequency of the event’s past occurrence o Representativeness heuristic ▪ Faulty decision or judgment based on how well an issue or event matches a prototype or representative example o Problem of Base rates  ▪ Believing that an event has a higher base rate of occurrence that it does ▪ Plus – low base rate events are difficult to predict accurately o Illusory correlation ▪ The belief that things are correlated when they are not ▪ Halo effect Tendency to rate individuals in a highly similar manner across different rating dimensions, resulting in very high correlations – much higher than is warranted Lecture #14 – PTSD and Substance Use - Post traumatic stress disorder o Due to trauma exposure or stressful event if death, threatened death, actual or threatened severe injury or actual or threaten sexual - Substance use disorder o The overuse or dependence on a substance that is detrimental to one’s physical and mental health resulting in social consequences - Public safety personnel o Correctional workers, police officers, paramedics, firefighters, dispatchers, and military - Prevalence o Increased prevalence o Vulnerability to trauma exposure o 21.3% of PSP suffer with PTSD 1/5 people ▪ RCMP Corrections ▪ 4 times more likely to develop SUD - Critical incidents o Risk of operational stress injuries o Primary presumptive factor o Unique environment for correctional workers ▪ Physical assault ▪ Threats of physical harm or death ▪ Confronting dead or mutilated bodies o Desert waters correctional outreach ▪ M=28 violence, injury, or death (VID) in career  ▪ N=3.599 - correctional workers All exposed to a VID incident ▪ Trama severity a reliable predictor for PTSD and SUD - Etiological Explanation: Self –Medication Theory o Trauma exposure o PTSD symptoms o Self-medication o SUD - Self-medication theory o Substance use serves as a method to alleviate PTSD symptoms ▪ Avoidance – avoiding a situation that may trigger memories of traumatic event ▪ Arousal – difficulty sleeping, anger, irritability ▪ Intrusion - flash backs, nightmares o Saladin et al. ▪ Compared PTSD and PTSD-SUD ▪ Higher prevalence of arousal and avoidance symptoms ▪ Arousal strongly associated with alcohol dependence o Coffey et al ▪ Intrusive symptoms significant contributing factor of SUD longevity ▪ Trauma related cues associated with increase craving for alcohol and cocaine ▪ Severity of PTSD o McCauley ▪ Withdrawals symptoms posing as ptsd symptoms ▪ Encourages and maintains Sud Problem – psp continually vulnerable to trauma exposure Solution – critical incident stress management o Causal model ▪ Sud precedes pstd by two potential mechanisms Elevated risk hypothesis o Susbtance use results in an individual engaging in high- risk behavior o Associated with obtaining and using substances o Leads to an increased risk of trauma exposure ▪ Partial support for the hypothesis Susceptibility hypothesis  o Sus increases the risk associated with ptsd development post trauma exposure as ▪ Substance use increases anxiety and arousal due to withdrawal ▪ Substance use inhibits one's ability to regulate negative affect after trauma ▪ Substance use encourages avoidance while decreasing processing ▪ Evidence remains ambiguous ▪ Shared liability model Co-morbidity of ptsd and sud is dependent upon two broads high –order dimension o Internalizing – directing stress inwards o Externalizing – directing stress outwards Present in an individual prior to trauma exposure ▪ Indirect variables Two indirect variables that contribute to the co-morbidity of PTSD and SUD o Childhood trauma ▪ Adverse effects on neural structure and fuction inhibiting development ▪ Physical and sexual abuse leads to a 3x greater chance for SUD ▪ Trauma load during stress sensitive period of childhood is related to the number and severity of symptoms ▪ 59% of adolescents with PTSD go on to develop a SUD ▪ Tendencies to turn to alcohol and drugs ▪ React more strongly as an adult o Lack of social support ▪ Protective factor ▪ Needed to cope with both PTSD and SUD ▪ Partners recongnized to be the key source of support ▪ Indirect humour and banter is a central feature to colleague interactions for positive support ▪ Implications  Mental health stigmatization Suicide Lots of stigma and confidentiallity concersn therefore many victims in work froces dont come forward or get help ▪ Public stigma Individual is aware of stereotypes held by public abt those who seek health services ▪ Self stigma Individual applies these steretypes to oneself ▪ Label avoidance Individual ignores symptoms in order to avoid negative stigma o Stigmatization ▪ Mental illness is recongnized from explicit cues ▪ The stigmatized cues evoke negative beliefs of stereotypes ▪ The individual succumbs to the negative stereotype resulting in negative affect o Sequential model of treatment o Integrated model of treatment