Psychology: Attraction and Social Interactions PDF

\-      **"In" group** -- the one we are connected with. Stronger interactions than with those in the out group, and more influential as well.  \-      **"Out" group --** group we're not associated with \-      **Group favouritism** -- we favour people in our own group, but those in outgroup are n...

\-      **"In" group** -- the one we are connected with. Stronger interactions than with those in the out group, and more influential as well.  \-      **"Out" group --** group we're not associated with \-      **Group favouritism** -- we favour people in our own group, but those in outgroup are neutral -- we don't give them favours we do to our in group.  \-      **Out group derogation** -- we are super friendly to our in group, but not friendly to out group -- we discriminate. Happens if we feel that the out group is threatening to the in group's success.  \-      **Group polarization** -- Group makes decisions that are [more extreme] than any individual member in the group would want. This can turbo charge the group's viewpoints.           **Social Behaviour**          **Proximity and the Mere Exposure Effect**          **Geographical proximity** is most powerful predictor of friendships and relationships. \-      Mating starts with meeting -- we aren't going to fall in love with someone we don't meet. Even with social media, still true.           **Mere exposure effect** = [repeated exposure] to novel people or objects increases our liking for them. More often we see something, more often we like it. Applies to everything -- music, numbers, objects, etc.  \-      There are exceptions, but in general true. Especially with attraction. \-      Ex. study where males rated women's attractiveness, took 2 women rated similarly and placed them in same class as the male. After 15 classes males rated the woman in their class higher than the other one they initially rated the same. \-      Ex. study with individuals who had **anterograde amnesia** (retrograde amnesia is loss of memory before accident, anterograde is loss of memory after). Showed them faces, and show them faces again at later date, some new some old. Ask individual if they've seen before, say no. But if ask which one attractive, they pick the face they've seen before.  \-      Shows us how subtle this effect is. \-      **Advertisers** know this effect. They depend on the mere exposure effect to sell you different products. More times we see a brand more likely we are to think positively.          **Physical Attraction**          What does physical attraction mean, and are there things attractive to all people? \-      There are cultural differences, but some things are **universal** -- skin clarity/smoothness, body symmetry. For women, low waist-hip ratio and full breasts. For men, muscular chest and V-shaped torso.           **Facial attraction** is more important than body attraction. For women, high forehead/small chin and nose/full lips/high cheekbone are attractive. For men, strong chin, jaw, cheekbones, and long lower face.  \-      Both men and women are attracted to [high sexual dimorphism] -- the difference between male and female traits. \-      Also **averageness** -- turns out unique traits are not most attractive. Most respondents pick 32 face average as most attractive, and 2 face average less.  ·       Even if you average 32 different faces, still looks the same as the average of 32 other faces. Suggests there's some prototype.            More subtle things also influence attractiveness -- ex. red background more attractive than white background.  \-      [Unrelated physiological arousal] also influences attraction -- individuals who just walked across narrow bridge (sympathetic arousal) leads to increased rating of woman. Because during attraction sympathetic arousal occurs as well, ex. fast heartbeat.           **Similarity**          How similar someone is to us is huge predictor of attraction. \-      Close friends and couples are more likely to share [common attitudes, beliefs, and values]. We tend to partner up with people who match our age, race, religion, and economic status/educational level.  ·       One study showed person is more likely to trust/cooperate with photo of someone whose facial features are morphed with their own.  ·       Also more likely to think individual is attractive when their facial features are morphed with their own.           Similarity can help people stay together. Does it help them stay together? Research has shown yes.  \-      Couples can also stay together due to **perceived similarity** -- because over time interests/beliefs are more aligned.  \-      Could result in a **similarity bias** -- implies we will not befriend people different from us.  \-      A **projection bias** is when we assume other share the same beliefs we do.  \-      **False consensus** is when we assume everyone else agrees with what we do, even if they do not.           **Harlow Monkey Experiment** \-      Separated monkeys from mothers at young age, then given choice between 2 substitute mothers (vaguely monkey-shaped structures).  ·       First option was wire mother -- vaguely face like shape on top of it, and chicken wire wrapped in cylinder. And in middle was feeding tube.  ·       Second mother was the cloth mother -- same shape/size, but instead of chicken wire had soft cloth blanket around it, so it can provide comfort.  ·       Baby monkeys overwhelmingly preferred to cloth mother -- spent a large majority of time clinging to her. If had to eat, tried to eat while staying attached to cloth mother.  ·       Cloth mother acts as a **secure base** -- eventually monkey is comfortable enough to explore world on its own, because it knows cloth mother will still be there.           **Secure and Insecure Attachment**          Babies are passed around, but then around 8 months stranger anxiety sets in. Child ends up being wary of strangers and even people they know. Some don't have stranger anxiety.          **Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation** -- done to try to understand why some have stranger anxiety and some don't. \-      Mother and child in room with a stranger, then mom leaves and returns. Wanted to see how child reacts.  \-      Researchers found children in 2 groups -- those with secure attachment and insecure attachment.  \-      60% were **secure**. Child explored room with present parent, but when they [left], child was [upset/distressed], but happy when mother returned.   \-      **Insecure** children clinged to mother, and stayed with mother and did not explore. When mother left became upset, but [distress did not go away] when she came back.  \-      Others were avoidant -- ignored mother when she returned.           What causes this?  \-      **Parenting style** ·       Those [sensitive] to child and responsive had ***secure*** attachment ·       Those [insensitive/unresponsive] formed ***insecure*** attachments.  \-      Parenting styles can be  ·       **Authoritarian** ·       **Permissive** ·       **Authoritative** (best).           **Aggression**          **Aggression** = any physical/verbal behavior intended to harm or destroy.           Aggression comes from combination of the 3:  \-      1) **Biology:** ·       Genes (identical twins more aggressive than fraternal twins, and we can breed animals for aggression).  ·       Circuits in brain can inhibit/facilitate aggression. The **amygdala** facilitates our fear response, and when stimulated triggers aggressive behavior. The **frontal lobe** is responsible for [impulse control], criminals have *decreased* frontal lobe activation.  ·       **Testosterone** is hormone released by testes in men and ovaries in women. High levels of high testosterone can lead to aggression, muscle building, and wider faces. Can lead to irritability/impulsiveness, and low tolerance for frustration. Drugs that reduce testosterone reduce aggressive tendencies.  \-      2) **Psychological:** ·       **Frustration-aggression principle**, the idea that [frustration creates anger] which can spark aggression. [Higher temperatures] can lead to frustration. ·       **Reinforcement-modeling** can lead to aggression through [positive reinforcement]. Parents who give into temper tantrums lead to more temper tantrums in future. Also if parents yell/hit each other, child will pick up on behavior too.  \-      3) **Socio-cultural** ·       People act more aggressively in [groups] (ex. riots) -- **deindividuation**, such as on the internet. ·       **Social scripts** -- when people are in new situations they rely on social scripts, or instructions provided by society on [how to act]. ¨     Ex. violent video games model aggressive behavior for them. Viewing media can give them example of how they should act.            Seems to be a combination of all 3 factors that lead to aggressive factor, not only 1.           **Altruism**          Studies found connection between [volunteerism] and future health and well-being. Also higher life satisfaction and decreased risk for depression/anxiety.           However, altruism can sometimes have ulterior motives.  \-      **Kin selection** - people act more altruistically to close kin than distant/non-kin.  ·       Same when people share last names, especially rare last names.  \-      **Reciprocal altruism** - People are also more cooperative if they will interact with that person again in the future.  ·       We feel more obliged to help those who have helped us.  \-      **Cost signalling** -- signals to others that person who's giving has resources. People have increased trust in those they know have [helped others]in the past.           **Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis** -- suggests some people are altruistic due to [empathy.] Those who score higher on empathy are more altruistic.  \-      **Early developmental trajectory** -- some newborns cry when other newborns cry. Helping behavior begins around **age 2**, children share toys and play act helping. Age 4 actually begin helping.           Social Support          **Emotional support** -- love, trust, caring. The type that involves listening and emphasizing.  \-      Provided by those closest to you.          **Esteem support** -- expressions of confidence/encouragement.  \-      Can come from therapists, teachers, coaches.          **Informational support** -- sharing information with us or giving us advice.  \-      Can come from family/friends or even articles online.          **Tangible support** -- financial support, goods, or services.  \-      Can come from a bank, people who bring you dinner when you're sick, or lend you money between jobs.           **Companionship support** -- the type that gives someone sense of social belonging. Companionship while you engage in an activity.  Social support is major determinant of health and well-being. Can help us deal with stress. \-      People with low social support report more symptoms related to depression/anxiety, and alcohol and drug problems. Also higher risk of deaths from cancer and heart disease.  \-      Why it's important to provide support for people around you too.           **Social Interactions**          **Status** is a person's [social position] in society. Each person has many statuses, ex. Son, student, friend, etc. They affect the type of interactions we have -- some equal, some not. ·       Ex. Friends are equal, but if you are interacting with professor they are superior to you. Of if you're president of school organization you can be superior over members. \-      **Ascribed statuses** -- statuses you can't change, given from birth. ex. Prince of royal family \-      **Achieved status** -- status you earn yourself after working for it, ex. Olympic athlete  **         Role Strain and Role Conflict**          **Role strain** -- when you can't carry out all obligations of a status, tensions [within one status].  \-      Causes individual to be pulled many directions by one status, ex. a student.           **Role conflict** -- conflict between [two different statuses], unlike role strain. Ex. someone who's a parent, friend, husband, and worker.  **         Primary and Secondary Groups**          **Primary groups** -- closest members of the group to you, ex. in a wedding the bridesmaids/groomsmen. They provide an anchorpoint. You are born into a primary group -- your family. Often seen as a source of close human feeling/emotion.          **Secondary groups** -- formal and business-like relationships, based on a limited purpose/goal. Usually short-term, and only see them sometimes. Only part of the group to accomplish a task or earn money.           **Dramaturgical Approach**          **Erving Goffman** studied nature of people's interactions. He noticed people planned their conduct, want to guide and control how they're seen, and act differently alone than in public. \-      Says people do all these things through process of **dramaturgy.** 2 parts of dramaturgy:  \-      **Front stage** -- when people are in a social setting. Ex. someone watches baseball with friends even if he doesn't like baseball. Manipulating how he's seen to make friends. \-      **Back stage** -- more private area of our lives, when act is over. You can be yourself.           Some people are crossing over from back stage to front stage due to social media -- putting on a front in their backstage to make a good impression.  **       Impression management** -- our attempt to control how others see us on the front stage. There are multiple front stages, and you have to play a different role every time.          **Backstage** -- where you work on impression management. Ex. put on makeup, look in mirror and try different outfits.           Discrimination -- Individual vs. Institutional          **Discrimination** is differential treatment and harmful actions against minorities. Can be based on different factors including race, age, religion, etc. Can occur at individual or organizational/institutional level. \-      **Individual discrimination --** ex. a science professor who doesn't let women into his class.  \-      **Institutional discrimination** -- governments, banks, etc.  ·       Example: Brown vs. Board of Education in 1954. In this court case, overturned separate schools for whites and African-Americans. Brown said these schools aren't equal, and Africans were being mistreated.          **Unintentional discrimination** -- how policies can discriminate unintentionally \-      **Side-effect discrimination** -- talks about how one institution/sector can influence another negatively.  ·       Ex. a small town where African American always get unfair verdict of guilty. Then while applying to a job later, don't get the job because of record. Criminal justice reached unfair verdict, and potential employers are swayed too.  \-      **Past-In-Present** discrimination -- how things done in the past, even if no longer allowed they can have consequences for people in the present.  ·       Ex. After Brown vs. Board verdict, but girl in integrated school still doesn't feel welcome in her classroom.  **         Prejudice vs. Discrimination**          **Prejudice** = attitudes that prejudge a group, usually negative and not based on facts. Make same assumptions about everyone in a group without considering their differences. (cognition) \-      Ex. CEO doesn't think women are capable of running a team.           **Discrimination** = differential treatment and harmful actions against minorities. (action)  \-      Ex. say there's a woman who's very good at the job, but doesn't promote her just because she's a women.           Organizations and Bureaucratization          Organizations and bureaucracies play a large role on our lives.           **Organizations** are institutions designed for a specific purpose, and try to achieve maximum efficiency.  ·       Ex. Postal Service, McDonalds, etc.  \-      **Utilitarian Organizations** -- members are paid/rewarded for their efforts, ex. Businesses and government jobs, and universities.  \-      **Normative Organizations** -- members come together through shared goals, ex. religion groups or MADD. Positive sense of unity and purpose.  \-      **Coercive Organization** -- members don't have choice about membership, ex. people in a prison, or the military.           Organizations achieve maximum efficiency through **bureaucracy** -- the rules, structures, and rankings that guide organizations.  \-      **Bureaucratization** - process by which organizations become increasingly governed by laws and policy.  ·       Ex. customer service, move through 12 menu options before reaching someone to help you.  \-      **Iron rule of oligarchy --** even most democratic of organizations become more bureaucratic over time until they're governed by select few.