Psychology Chapter 7 PDF

CHAPTER 7 -- LEARNING **The study of Learning** - What is [learning?] - a process that results in a relatively consistent change in behaviour or behaviour potential based on experience (taking information, evaluating it, using it, and then making a response to the...

CHAPTER 7 -- LEARNING **The study of Learning** - What is [learning?] - a process that results in a relatively consistent change in behaviour or behaviour potential based on experience (taking information, evaluating it, using it, and then making a response to the environment - learning-performance distinction -- the difference between what has been learned and what is expressed (performed) overtly -- not always able to - one basic form of learning is habitation when a stimulus does not produce an action because it does not need your attention -- because of repeated action (ex. How you get to school, use to the clothes you are wearing) - learning performance distinction -- behaviour and the potentials for behaviour - learning may happen but it's not behaved - learned in training but can't perform it - habitation is a basic form of learning - Learning-Performance Distinction Example - A new friend of yours has introduced you to jazz music. After this introduction. You have come to appreciate and gain a greater unde4rstanding of the artistic stylings of many jazz musicians - You study the map of Guelph-Humber and then get lost - You are learning but not getting all then new onuses A diagram of a variety of blue squares Description automatically generated - Habituation = decrease in behavioral response when a stimulus is presented repeatedly that does not require an action **Video:** first noise scares the rat but over time there is a decrease, and the rat becomes use to it **Key Feature of Learning** - Not all changes in behaviour are the result of learning -- only relatively permanent changes are (consistent over different occasions) - Change in behaviour is not always immediately obvious (not overt) -- Learning needs experience, reference points - Not all learning is intentionally produced - Not all thing we learn actually change our behaviour or results of our learning **The Study of Learning** - Several key developments in the history of learning (behaviourism): - **Ivan Pavlov --** classical conditioning model - **John Watson --** founded the school of thought known as behaviourism -- "psychology of the Standpoint of Behaviourism" -- introspection is too limiting need to look at how people respond (inside vs. outside) - **B.F. Skinner -- operant** conditioning model and schedules of reinforcement -- what are the causes of behaviour - **Observational Learning/Behavioural analysis:** forces on discovering environmental determinant of learning & behaviour (bandura) **Classical conditioning** - Classical conditioning is defined as a basic form of learning in which one stimulus predicts the occurrence of anther (though learned associations) - **Ivan Pavlov** - Russian physiologist - Observed learned associations during this search on digestion - Gave various types of food to dogs and measured their salivary response - Nobel Prize in 1904 - Pavlov and his colleagues made an accidental discovery -- they began to salivate before the food was given (through hearing footsteps, bell ring) - Pavlov observed that behaviour came to be elicted by a stimulus that has acquires its power thorugh an association with a *biologically significant* stimulus - Repeated pairing of a stimulus with stimuli that naturally elicit a reflex response - E.g., salivation, pupil contraction, knee jerks - Also called Pavlovian conditioning **Key elements in Classical Conditioning** - A reflex is a simple unlearned response to a stimulus - A stimulus is an environmental condition that elicits a response **Condition Terms** - [Unconditioned Stimulus] (UCS) - Any stimulus that naturally elicits a behaviour - [Unconditioned Response] (UCR) - The behaviour elicited by the UCS - [Conditioned Stimulus] (CS) - A neutral stimulus that I s able to elicit behaviour only after association with the USC - [Conditioned Response] (CR) - The behaviour elicited to the CS - The neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus - UCR & CR -- same thing -- what elicits them is different!! **Features of Classical Conditioning**  **Processes of Conditioning** - [Acquisition] - The process by which the CR is first elicited and gradually increase in frequency over *repeated* trials - Association is being learning - *Timing of stimulus* presentation important - Timing and it impact on acquisition - [Extinction] - The weakening of a CR because of the absence of CS and UCS - Habituation -- when a stimulus does not produce an action because it does not need your attention - [Spontaneous recovery] - The sudden reappearance of the CR after a rest period without future exposure to the UCS (stimulus generalization and discrimination) **Acquisition & Timing** A screenshot of a computer screen Description automatically generated - Forward -- Short Delay Example -- Keep ringing bell and then bring in food - Forward-Trace - Ring bell then stop and bring in food - Simultaneous -- food and bell at the same time - Backward -- Bring food, then ring bell **Processes of Conditioning** - More finding from Pavlov -- Are responses specific to the stimuli? No.... - [Stimulus generalization] - Automatic extension of conditioned Reponses to stimuli that are similar to the CS (e.g., objects, word -- style & stile, also style and fashion) - Ring of a phone, music playing, sound -- if they are similar, we will make about automatic relation the more similar the more string the response it - [Stimulus discrimination] - Learning to respond differently to stimuli that differ from the CS on some dimension - Work in balance with generalization to respond effectively - Greater the similarities are the more stringer the response is **Classical conditioning Application**  **Exposure Therapy** - Extinction of CR through exposure to CS without presence of UCS **Systematic desensitization** - Muscular relaxation paired with gradual exposure to fear-inducing stimulus **Flooding** - Exposure to fearful stimulus **VR Exposure therapy** - Effective for phobias **Operant Conditioning** - Edward Thorndike's (1898) research on cats & puzzle boxes (problem solving) - [Law of Effect] - The animal started by trial and error = slow performance - Gradually eliminated responses - a response followed by satisfying consequences becomes more probable - A response followed by dissatisfying consequences becomes less probable - What is [operant conditioning?] - Learning procedures which manipulate the consequences of behavior in order to see what effect this has on subsequent behavior - **Discriminant stimulus =** a particular response will produce certain consequences - **Operant** = affecting the environment = behavior that is emitted (voluntary) - B.F. Skinner's research experiments - Skinner's Analysis of Operant Behaviour - A: antecedent of behaviour - B: behaviour - C: consequences that follow behaviour - If A is present - AND B is emitted - THEN C will occur - Relation between A& B = contingencies - A - Factors or stimuli that proceed a behaviour - B -- The action the animal or human being will take on - C- What follow **Schedules of Reinforcement** - It is not always possible to reinforce behaviour on every occurrence - [Partial reinforcement effect:] - Responses acquired under schedules of partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction than those acquired with continuous reinforcement - Reinforcers delivered according to ratio (number of responses) or interval (time) schedules, and based on fixed or variable patterns **Classical vs. Operant** Diagram Description automatically generated **Schedules of Reinforcement** - [Fixed-Ratio] (FR) - Reinforcement after fixed number of responses emitted (e.g., a free coffee after buying 10 coffees) - [Variable-Ratio] (VR) - The average number of responses between reinforcers is predetermined (i.e., a slot machine - greatest resistance to extinction) - [Fixed-Interval] (FI) - Reinforcer is delivered for the first response after a fixed period of time (subway/bus schedule) - [Variable-Interval] (VI) - The average interval between reinforcers is predetermined (waiting for a specific email or text) **Reinforcers** - [Negative reinforcement] - Behavior that is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus (increases behavior) - **Escape conditioning** -- response allows escape from aversive stimulus - **Avoidance conditioning** -- response allows avoidance of aversive stimuli before it begins **Punishment** - [Punisher] - Any stimulus that, when made contingent on a response, *decreases* the probability of that response - Punishment = delivery of punisher after response - [Positive punishment] - Behaviour that is followed by the delivery of an aversive stimulus (decreases behaviour) - [Negative punishment] - Behaviour that is followed by the removal of an appetitive stimulus (decreases behaviour) **Reinforcement vs. Punishment**  **Observational Learning** - Cognitive aspects of learning are also demonstrated by our ability to learn from the experiences of others (**social learning**) - [Observational learning] - When individuals, after simply watching another person exhibiting behaviour that was reinforced or punished, later behaves in the same way or refrains from doing so (if model punished) - Cognitive aspects = expectations **Bandura & Social Learning**\ A screenshot of a computer Description automatically generated - *Classic Bobo doll studies* - Children watched a film that showed aggression - One group saw the model rewarded with candy, one with no consequences, and one was reprimanded - Several factors that make a model's observed behaviour most influential (e.g., reinforcement, similarity to observer)