Psychology Chapter 20-22 PDF

**Cognition Across the Lifespan** 20.1.01 Piaget\'s Theory of Cognitive Development Jean Piaget\'s theory of cognitive development states that humans progress through four distinct, age-related stages in which they master increasingly complex cognitive tasks. During the **sensorimotor stage** (ag...

**Cognition Across the Lifespan** 20.1.01 Piaget\'s Theory of Cognitive Development Jean Piaget\'s theory of cognitive development states that humans progress through four distinct, age-related stages in which they master increasingly complex cognitive tasks. During the **sensorimotor stage** (ages \~0--2), children explore the world using their senses (eg, touch) and motor movements (eg, grabbing). Attainment of **object permanence** occurs when the child becomes aware that something still exists even when it cannot be seen. For example, a child who looks under a bed for a ball she just saw roll underneath has developed object permanence (Figure 20.1). **Figure 20.1** Object permanence example. A child playing with a ball Description automatically generated Chapter 20: Cognition 120 During the **preoperational stage** (ages \~2--7), children engage in pretend play and develop language. The preoperational stage is marked by **egocentrism**, the inability to assume another\'s point of view. For example, a child assumes that his favorite food is also his dad\'s favorite food. During the **concrete operational stage** (ages \~7--11), children begin to think logically about concrete events and to master **conservation**: the understanding that an object\'s properties (eg, amount of water) remain the same even if its form changes (eg, water is poured from a tall glass to a wide glass) (Figure 20.2). **Figure 20.2** Conservation example. During the **formal operational stage** (ages 11+), children develop moral reasoning and hypothetical thinking as a result of logical, abstract thinking. For example, a child in this stage uses hypothetical, abstract thinking to solve problems in algebra class (Figure 20.3).  Chapter 20: Cognition 121 **Figure 20.3** Formal operational stage example. **Piaget\'s Theory of Learning** **Schemas** are mental representations based on culture and experience that guide expectations. For example, a schema guides the expectations for student and teacher behavior in a classroom setting. According to Piaget, **assimilation** occurs when children interpret new information or experiences using existing schemas. For example, a child might call any animal in the water, even a mammal such as an otter, a \"fish\" (Figure 20.4). **Figure 20.4** Assimilation example. A person writing on a white board with Gap Inc. in the background Description automatically generated  In contrast, **accommodation** occurs when new information changes existing schemas. For example, a child learns that a pony is a short, adult horse (not a baby horse) and modifies her mental representation for horses to include short adult horses called ponies (Figure 20.5). **Theories of Intelligence** 20.2.01 Theories of Intelligence **Intelligence** is the ability to learn, adapt, and solve problems. Some experts, such as Charles Spearman, asserted that intelligence reflects a single trait (ie, the **g factor**). This single trait is thought to underlie performance on the tasks found on standardized intelligence tests (eg, Wechsler, Stanford-Binet) and predict academic abilities. In contrast, Howard Gardner\'s **theory of multiple intelligences** covers a broad range of skills in different domains. The different types of intelligence in Gardner\'s theory include linguistic, visual-spatial, musical-rhythmic, logical-mathematical, intrapersonal, interpersonal, naturalist, and kinesthetic (described in Figure 20.6). **Figure 20.6** Howard Gardner\'s theory of multiple intelligences. A diagram of different types of objects Description automatically generated Another theory, Robert Sternberg\'s **triarchic theory of intelligence** (Figure 20.7), consists of three types of intelligence: practical (ie, applying real-world knowledge to manage everyday problems), creative (ie, managing novel situations and inventing new things), and analytical (ie, scrutinizing, evaluating, and solving problems). **Figure 20.7** Robert Sternberg\'s triarchic theory of intelligence.  **Types of Problem-Solving** 21.1.01 Types of Problem-Solving **Problem-solving** involves identifying a problem, coming up with a tactic or strategy to solve the problem, carrying out the tactic or strategy, and evaluating whether a solution has been attained. There are several common problem-solving methods. **Trial and error** involves attempting possible solutions until the problem is solved, ruling out ineffective solutions along the way. For example, a psychiatrist may try various antidepressants for a patient, monitoring their effects over time until the best medication is found. Trial and error is most viable when there are a limited number of options. The problem-solving strategy referred to as an **algorithm** is a systematic (ie, step-by-step) procedure (eg, using an algebraic formula) that produces an accurate solution to a well-defined problem (eg, an algebraic equation). Although a solution is guaranteed, algorithms may also be complex and time-consuming. See Figure 21.1 for an example of an algorithm. **Figure 21.1** Algorithm example. In contrast, a **heuristic** is a mental shortcut that allows for fast problem-solving and decision-making. Heuristics are less time-consuming than algorithms. However, unlike algorithms, heuristics sometimes lead to inaccurate conclusions. For example, to calculate a 20% tip on a dinner bill, an individual could apply a heuristic and simply double the 8% sales tax listed on the bill (instead of using an algorithm such as a mathematical formula to produce the correct answer). This heuristic would be faster but less accurate than the algorithm (ie, 16% as compared to 20%). Heuristics are described in more detail in Concept 21.2.01. **Barriers to Effective Problem-Solving** 21.2.01 Heuristics As Concept 21.1.01 introduces, heuristics are mental shortcuts that allow for fast problem-solving and decision-making but sometimes lead to inaccurate conclusions. Examples of heuristics include the representativeness heuristic and the availability heuristic. The **representativeness heuristic** is the tendency to compare things (eg, people, events) to mental prototypes (ie, typical or standard examples) when making judgments. For example, a patient assumes that a male clinician is a doctor (and not a nurse) because the clinician matches the patient\'s mental prototype that male clinicians are doctors. The **availability heuristic** is the tendency to believe that if something is easily recalled from memory, it must be common or likely. For example, an individual easily recalls news coverage of shark attacks and then incorrectly assumes shark attacks are common (Figure 21.2). **Figure 21.2** Availability heuristic example. 21.2.02 Biases Cognitive biases are common problem-solving obstacles that result in illogical conclusions. **Confirmation bias** occurs when an individual has a preconceived belief and looks only for evidence supporting that belief, ignoring contradictory evidence. For example, an individual only consumes media (eg, articles, TV) that support their political views, subsequently ignoring contrary information (Figure 21.3). Chapter 21: Problem-Solving and Decision-Making 127 **Figure 21.3** Example of confirmation bias. In contrast, **hindsight bias** occurs when an event is perceived as having been predictable after it occurs. For example, an individual declares that they knew \"all along\" that they were going to run out of gas (see Figure 21.4). **Figure 21.4** Example of hindsight bias.  21.2.03 Other Barriers Other common barriers to effective problem-solving include mental set and functional fixedness. **Mental set** describes when an individual continues using a problem-solving method that worked previously but is not right for the current problem. For example, after opening several doors by pulling the handle, an individual may repeatedly pull a door handle that must be pushed to open. Similarly, **functional fixedness** prevents an individual from thinking of different uses for an object. For example, if an individual who needs to tighten a screw does not have a screwdriver and instead uses the edge of a coin, that individual has overcome functional fixedness (Figure 21.5). **Theories of Language Development** 22.1.01 Learning Theory There are several language development theories; they differ in the extent to which language acquisition is characterized as learned (eg, learning perspective) versus innate (eg, nativist perspective). B.F. Skinner\'s **learning theory** (also known as the behaviorist theory) argues that language is an entirely learned behavior. This theory suggests that humans are born as \"blank slates\" and develop language skills through [operant conditioning](javascript:void(0)), imitation, and practice. For example, when infants make vocalizations that sound like \"mama,\" they are rewarded with attention and affection, thereby increasing the likelihood that that behavior will be repeated. However, when infants make other sounds that are not similar to words, they do not receive reinforcement. 22.1.02 Nativist Theory In contrast to the learning theory (Concept 22.1.01), the **nativist theory** of language development proposes that language is not learned like other behaviors are (ie, through conditioning and modeling); instead, the learning of language is an innate process hardwired in the brain. A proponent of the nativist theory, linguist and cognitive scientist Noam Chomsky argued for the existence of a hypothetical **language acquisition device** (LAD) that innately prewires the human brain to learn language. He stated that it is the existence of the LAD that allows children to readily pick up language from their caregivers and other people. Research supports the existence of a critical period of language development (Figure 22.1), which suggests that there is a time-sensitive period early in life during which language acquisition is easier (with proper exposure), as compared to the period afterward, during which language acquisition is much more difficult. The nativist theory asserts that humans will learn whichever language(s) they are exposed to during the critical period. Support for this theory includes that certain brain regions involved in language development (eg, Wernicke\'s area) are similar in all humans. **Figure 22.1** Critical period for language development.  22.1.03 Interactionist Theory The **interactionist theory** proposes that language acquisition is the result of both biological factors (eg, typical brain development) and environmental factors (eg, the interaction that occurs between children and their caregivers). The interactionist theory is supported by evidence that certain aspects of language appear to be innate whereas others appear to be social. Children typically learn to communicate with language along a similar timeline (eg, first words around age one, simple two-word phrases by age two), which provides evidence that some aspects of language acquisition are innate. However, children who are severely neglected (ie, almost no social contact) do not learn to communicate using language, which provides evidence that language acquisition also requires social interaction. 22.2.01 Language and Cognition The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, also known as the **linguistic relativity hypothesis**, argues that language influences perception and cognition. For example, if an individual does not have vocabulary for a \"toe-loop\" ice-skating jump or a \"lutz\" jump (and instead refers to each as a \"jump\"), that person will find it difficult to tell the two jumps apart (Figure 22.2). **Figure 22.2** Linguistic relativity hypothesis example. Linguistic determinism, a stronger version of this hypothesis, states that language determines perception and cognition. For example, if an individual does not have vocabulary for a \"toe-loop\" ice-skating jump or a \"lutz\" jump (and instead refers to each as a \"jump\"), linguistic determinism predicts that this person would be unable to tell the two jumps apart. Lesson 22.3 **The Biological Underpinnings of Language and Speech** 22.3.01 The Biological Underpinnings of Language and Speech Two key language centers in the brain, Broca\'s area and Wernicke\'s area, are named after the researchers who identified the functions of these specialized regions (Figure 22.3). Paul Broca discovered that a region now called **Broca\'s area**, located in the left frontal lobe in most people, is responsible for language production. Damage to Broca\'s area results in a type of aphasia (a problem with language production or comprehension) in which patients have difficulty producing spoken or written language (eg, mispronouncing words). **Figure 22.3** Broca\'s and Wernicke\'s areas. Carl Wernicke discovered that a region now called **Wernicke\'s area**, located in the left temporal lobe in most people, is responsible for language comprehension. Damage to Wernicke\'s area results in a type of aphasia in which patients have difficulty comprehending spoken and written language (eg, difficulty understanding what other are saying)