Psychology and Life (20ed) - Gerrig - PDF

PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES systems created by the organs of the body. These energy sources, when activated, could be expressed in many different ways. Common to all psychodyna...

PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES systems created by the organs of the body. These energy sources, when activated, could be expressed in many different ways. Common to all psychodynamic personality theories is the Freud postulated two basic drives. One he saw as involved assumption that powerful inner forces shape personality and with self-preservation (meeting such needs as hunger and thirst). motivate behavior. Sigmund Freud, the originator of psychody- The other he called Eros, the driving force related to sexual namic theories, was characterized by his biographer Ernest urges and preservation of the species. Freud greatly expanded Jones as “the Darwin of the mind” (1953). Freud’s theory of the notion of human sexual desires to include not only the urge personality boldly attempts to explain the origins and course for sexual union but all other attempts to seek pleasure or to of personality development, the nature of mind, aspects of ab- make physical contact with others. He used the term libido to normal personality, and the way personality can be changed identify the source of energy for sexual urges—a psychic energy by therapy. The focus here will only be on normal personality; that drives us toward sensual pleasures of all types. Sexual urges Chapters 14 and 15 will treat Freud’s views on psychopathol- demand immediate satisfaction, whether through direct actions ogy. After we explore Freud, we will consider some criticisms or through indirect means such as fantasies and dreams. and reworkings of his theories. According to Freud, Eros, as a broadly defined sexual drive, does not suddenly appear at puberty but operates from birth. Eros is evident, he argued, in the pleasure infants derive Freudian Psychoanalysis from physical stimulation of the genitals and other sensitive areas, or erogenous zones. Freud’s five stages of psychosexual According to psychoanalytic theory, at the core of personal- development are shown in Table 13.2. Freud believed that the ity are events within a person’s mind (intrapsychic events) that physical source of sexual pleasure changed in this orderly pro- motivate behavior. Often, people are aware of these motiva- gression. One of the major obstacles of psychosexual develop- tions; however, some motivation also operates at an uncon- ment, at least for boys, occurs in the phallic stage. Here, the scious level. The psychodynamic nature of this approach comes 4- or 5-year-old child must overcome the Oedipus complex. from its emphasis on these inner wellsprings of behavior, as Freud named this complex after the mythical figure Oedipus, well as the clashes among these internal forces. For Freud, all who unwittingly killed his father and married his mother. behavior was motivated. No chance or accidental happenings Freud believed that every young boy has an innate impulse cause behavior; all acts are determined by motives. Every hu- to view his father as a sexual rival for his mother’s attentions. man action has a cause and a purpose that can be discovered Because the young boy cannot displace his father, the Oedipus through analysis of thought associations, dreams, errors, and complex is generally resolved when the boy comes to identify other behavioral clues to inner passions. The primary data for with his father’s power. (Freud was inconsistent with respect Freud’s hypotheses about personality came from clinical ob- to his theoretical account of the experiences of young girls.) servations and in-depth case studies of individual patients in According to Freud, either too much gratification or too therapy. He developed a theory of normal personality from his much frustration at one of the early stages of psychosexual intense study of those with mental disorders. Let’s look at some of the most important aspects of Freud’s theory. Explore the Concept Freud’s Five Psychosexual Stages of Personality Drives and Psychosexual Development Freud’s medical Development on MyPsychLab training as a neurologist led him to postulate a common biolog- psychodynamic personality theory Theory of personality that shares ical basis for the behavioral patterns he observed in his patients. the assumption that personality is shaped by and behavior is He ascribed the source of motivation for human actions to motivated by inner forces. psychic energy found within each individual. Each person was libido The psychic energy that drives individuals toward sensual assumed to have inborn instincts or drives that were tension pleasures of all types, especially sexual ones. Table 13.2
t Freud’s Stages of Psychosexual Development Major Developmental Task (Potential Source Some Adult Characteristics of Children Who Stage Age Erogenous Zones of Conflict) Have Been Fixated at This Stage Oral 0–1 Mouth, lips, tongue Weaning Oral behavior, such as smoking, overeating; passivity and gullibility Anal 2–3 Anus Toilet training Ordeliness, parsimoniousness, obstinacy, or the opposite Phallic 4–5 Genitals Oedipus complex Vanity, recklessness, or the opposite Latency 6–12 No specific area Development of defense None: Fixation does not normally occur at this stage mechanisms Genitals 13–18 Mature sexual intimacy Adults who have successfully integrated earlier stages should emerge with a sincere interest in others and a mature sexuality Psychodynamic Theories 363  is not aware. You may act without knowing why or without di- rect access to the true cause of your actions. There is a manifest content to your behavior—what you say, do, and perceive—of which you are fully aware, but there is also a concealed, latent content. The meaning of neurotic (anxiety-based) symptoms, dreams, and slips of the pen and tongue is found at the un- conscious level of thinking and information processing. Many psychologists today consider this concept of the unconscious to be Freud’s most important contribution to the science of psy- chology. Much modern literature and drama, as well, explores the implications of unconscious processes for human behavior. According to Freud, impulses within you that you find unacceptable still strive for expression. A Freudian slip occurs when an unconscious desire is betrayed by your speech or be- havior. For example, I once felt obligated to write a thank-you note although I hadn’t much enjoyed a weekend I’d spent at a friend’s home. I intended to write, “I’m glad we got to spend a chunk of time together.” However, in a somewhat testy phone call, the friend informed me that I’d actually written “I’m glad we got to spend a junk of time together.” Do you see how the substitution of junk for chunk could be the expression of an unconscious desire? The concept of unconscious motivation adds a new dimension to personality by allowing for greater complexity of mental functioning. You’ve now learned some basic aspects of Freud’s theory. Why did Freud believe that eating is motivated not only by Let’s see how they contribute to the structure of personality. the self-preservation drive to satisfy hunger but also by the “erotic” drive to seek oral gratification? development leads to fixation, an inability to progress nor- mally to the next stage of development. As shown in Table 13.2, fixation at different stages can produce a variety of adult char- acteristics. The concept of fixation explains why Freud put such emphasis on early experiences in the continuity of personality. He believed that experiences in the early stages of psychosexual development had a profound impact on personality formation Conscious and adult behavior patterns. Psychic Determinism The concept of fixation gives us a first look at Freud’s belief that early conflicts help determine later behaviors. Psychic determinism is the assumption that all Unconscious mental and behavioral reactions (symptoms) are determined by earlier experiences. Freud believed that symptoms were not arbitrary. Rather, symptoms were related in a meaningful way to significant life events. Freud’s belief in psychic determinism led him to empha- size the unconscious—the repository of information that is unavailable to conscious awareness (see Figure 13.4). Other writers had discussed this construct, but Freud put the concept of the unconscious determinants of human thought, feeling, and action at center stage in the human drama. According to Freud, behavior can be motivated by drives of which a person fixation A state in which a person remains attached to objects or FIGURE 13.4 Freud’s Conception of the activities more appropriate for an earlier stage of psychosexual development. Human Mind psychic determinism The assumption that mental and behavioral Freudian theory likens the human mind to an iceberg. The tip reactions are determined by previous experiences. of the iceberg, which you can see, represents consciousness. unconscious The domain of the psyche that stores repressed urges The unconscious is the vast bulk of the iceberg, which remains and primitive impulses. hidden beneath the water. 364 Chapter 13 Understanding Human Personality The Structure of Personality In Freud’s theory, personality Table 13.3 t Major Ego Defense Mechanisms differences arise from the different ways in which people deal with their fundamental drives. To explain these differences, Denial of Protecting self from unpleasant reality by refusing Freud pictured a continuing battle between two antagonistic reality to perceive it parts of the personality—the id and the superego—moderated Displacement Discharging pent-up feelings, usually of hostility, by a third aspect of the self, the ego. Although it might sound on objects less dangerous than those that initially almost as if these aspects of self are separate creatures, keep in aroused the emotion mind that Freud believed them all to be just different mental processes. He did not, for example, identify specific brain loca- Fantasy Gratifying frustrated desires in imaginary tions for the id, ego, and superego. achievements (“daydreaming” is a common form) The id is the storehouse of the fundamental drives. It op- Identification Increasing feelings of worth by identifying self erates irrationally, acting on impulse and pushing for expres- with another person or institution, often of sion and immediate gratification without considering whether illustrious standing what is desired is realistically possible, socially desirable, or Isolation Cutting off emotional charge from hurtful morally acceptable. The id is governed by the pleasure princi- situations or separating incompatible attitudes ple, the unregulated search for gratification—especially sexual, into logic-tight compartments (holding conflicting physical, and emotional pleasures—to be experienced here and attitudes that are never thought of simultane- now without concern for consequences. ously or in relation to each other); also called The superego is the storehouse of an individual’s values, compartmentalization including moral attitudes learned from society. The superego corresponds roughly to the common notion of conscience. It Projection Placing blame for one’s difficulties on others or develops as a child comes to accept as his or her own values attributing one’s own “forbidden” desires to others the prohibitions of parents and other adults against socially Rationalization Attempting to prove that one’s behavior is undesirable actions. It is the inner voice of oughts and should “rational” and justifiable and thus worthy of the nots. The superego also includes the ego ideal, an individual’s approval of self and others view of the kind of person he or she should strive to become. Thus the superego is often in conflict with the id. The id wants Reaction Preventing dangerous desires from being to do what feels good, whereas the superego insists on doing formation expressed by endorsing opposing attitudes and what is right. types of behavior and using them as “barriers” The ego is the reality-based aspect of the self that arbitrates Regression Retreating to earlier developmental levels the conflict between id impulses and superego demands. The ego involving more childish responses and usually a represents an individual’s personal view of physical and social lower level of aspiration reality—his or her conscious beliefs about the causes and con- sequences of behavior. Part of the ego’s job is to choose actions Repression Pushing painful or dangerous thoughts out of that will gratify id impulses without undesirable consequences. consciousness, keeping them unconscious; this The ego is governed by the reality principle, which puts reason- is considered to be the most basic of the defense able choices before pleasurable demands. Thus the ego would mechanisms block an impulse to cheat on an exam because of concerns about Sublimation Gratifying or working off frustrated sexual desires the consequences of getting caught, and it would substitute the in substitutive nonsexual activities socially resolution to study harder the next time or solicit the teacher’s accepted by one’s culture sympathy. When the id and the superego are in conflict, the ego arranges a compromise that at least partially satisfies both. How- ever, as id and superego pressures intensify, it becomes more difficult for the ego to work out optimal compromises. with powerful inner conflicts. By using them, a person is able to maintain a favorable self-image and to sustain an accept- Repression and Ego Defense Sometimes this compro- able social image. For example, if a child has strong feelings mise between id and superego involves “putting a lid on the of hatred toward his father—which, if acted out, would be id.” Extreme desires are pushed out of conscious awareness into the privacy of the unconscious. Repression is the psycho- logical process that protects an individual from experiencing Explore the Concept The Id, Ego, and Superego on MyPsychLab extreme anxiety or guilt about impulses, ideas, or memories id The primitive, unconscious part of the personality that represents the that are unacceptable and/or dangerous to express. The ego internalization of society’s values, standards, and morals. remains unaware of both the mental content that is censored superego The aspect of personality that represents the internalization of and the process by which repression keeps information out of society’s values, standards, and morals. consciousness. Repression is considered to be the most basic of ego The aspect of personality involved in self-preservation activities the various ways in which the ego defends against being over- and in directing instinctual drives and urges into appropriate channels. whelmed by threatening impulses and ideas. repression The basic defense mechanism by which painful or guilt- Ego defense mechanisms are mental strategies the ego producing thoughts, feelings, or memories are excluded from uses to defend itself in the daily conflict between id impulses conscious awareness. that seek expression and the superego’s demand to deny them ego defense mechanism Mental strategy (conscious or unconscious) (see Table 13.3). In psychoanalytic theory, these mechanisms used by the ego to defend itself against conflicts experienced in the are considered vital to an individual’s psychological coping normal course of life. Psychodynamic Theories 365 dangerous—repression may take over. The hostile impulse is construction of probable actions and predictable outcomes. then no longer consciously pressing for satisfaction or even In addition, by overemphasizing historical origins of current recognized as existing. However, although the impulse is not behavior, the theory directs attention away from the current seen or heard, it is not gone; these feelings continue to play a stimuli that may be inducing and maintaining the behavior. role in personality functioning. For example, by developing a There are three other major criticisms of Freudian theory. strong identification with his father, the child may increase his First, it is a developmental theory, but it never included obser- sense of self-worth and reduce his unconscious fear of being vations or studies of children. Second, it minimizes traumatic discovered as a hostile agent. experiences (such as child abuse) by reinterpreting memories In Freudian theory, anxiety is an intense emotional re- of them as fantasies (based on a child’s desire for sexual contact sponse triggered when a repressed conflict is about to emerge with a parent). Third, it has an androcentric (male-centered) into consciousness. Anxiety is a danger signal: Repression is bias because it uses a male model as the norm without trying to not working! Red alert! More defenses needed! This is the time determine how females might be different. for a second line of defense, one or more additional ego defense Some aspects of Freud’s theory, however, continue to mechanisms that will relieve the anxiety and send the distress- gain acceptance as they are modified and improved through ing impulses back down into the unconscious. For example, a empirical scrutiny. For example, in Chapter 5, we saw that mother who does not like her son and does not want to care for the concept of the unconscious is being systematically ex- him might use reaction formation, which transforms her unac- plored by contemporary researchers (McGovern & Baars, ceptable impulse into its opposite: “I hate my child” becomes 2007). This research reveals that much of your day-to-day “I love my child. See how I smother the dear little thing with experience is shaped by processes outside of your awareness. love?” Such defenses serve the critical coping function of al- These results support Freud’s general concept but weaken the leviating anxiety. link between unconscious processes and psychopathology: If defense mechanisms defend you against anxiety, why Little of your unconscious knowledge will cause you anxiety might they still have negative consequences for you? Useful or distress. as they are, ego mechanisms of defense are ultimately self- Researchers have also found evidence for some of the hab- deceptive. When overused, they create more problems than its of mind Freud characterized as defense mechanisms. We they solve. It is psychologically unhealthy to spend a great deal saw earlier that individuals are most likely to use defense mech- of time and psychic energy deflecting, disguising, and rechan- anisms when they are experiencing anxiety. Researchers have neling unacceptable urges in order to reduce anxiety. Doing tested this hypothesis in a variety of ways. so leaves little energy for productive living or satisfying hu- man relationships. Freud argued that some forms of mental Featured Study One study focused on a group of 9- to 11-year-old girls illness result from excessive reliance on defense mechanisms to (Sandstrom & Cramer, 2003). The researchers carried out cope with anxiety, as you will see in a later chapter on mental interviews with their peers to determine who among the disorders. group of 50 girls was relatively popular and who was rela- tively unpopular. Each of the 50 girls underwent a laboratory experience in which they were rejected by another young Evaluation of Freudian Theory girl. The researchers reasoned that—because of their history This chapter has devoted a great deal of space to outlining the of negative social interactions—the unpopular girls would ex- essentials of psychoanalytic theory because Freud’s ideas have perience more anxiety than the popular girls in the face of had an enormous impact on the way many psychologists think this rejection. The researchers suggested that, to cope with about normal and abnormal aspects of personality. However, that anxiety, the unpopular girls would show evidence for there probably are more psychologists who criticize Freudian more frequent use of defense mechanisms. To test this hy- concepts than who support them. What is the basis of some of pothesis, the researcher asked the girls to tell stories based their criticisms? on cards from the Thematic Apperception Test (see p. 435). First, psychoanalytic concepts are vague and not opera- The stories were analyzed for evidence of the defense tionally defined; thus much of the theory is difficult to evaluate mechanisms denial and projection (see Table 13.3). These scientifically. Because some of its central hypotheses cannot be analyses supported the hypothesis: The unpopular girls used disproved, even in principle, Freud’s theory remains question- more defense mechanisms than the popular girls after the able. How can the concepts of libido, the structure of personal- episode of peer rejection. ity, and repression of infantile sexual impulses be studied in any direct fashion? A second, related criticism is that Freudian theory is Some of the styles for coping with stress that Chapter 12 de- good history but bad science. It does not reliably predict what scribed fall within the general category of defense mechanisms. will occur; it is applied retrospectively—after events have oc- You might recall, for example, that inhibiting the thoughts and curred. Using psychoanalytic theory to understand personal- feelings associated with personal traumas or guilty or shameful ity typically involves historical reconstruction, not scientific experiences can take a devastating toll on mental and physical health (Pennebaker, 1997; Petrie et al., 2004). These findings echo Freud’s beliefs that repressed psychic material can lead to psychological distress. Explore the Concept Defense Mechanisms on MyPsychLab Freud’s theory is the most complex, comprehensive, anxiety An intense emotional response caused by the preconscious and compelling view of normal and abnormal personality recognition that a repressed conflict is about to emerge into functioning—even when its predictions prove wrong. However, consciousness. like any other theory, Freud’s is best treated as one that must be 366 Chapter 13 Understanding Human Personality confirmed or disconfirmed element by element. Freud retains his influence on contemporary psychology because some of his ideas have been widely accepted. Others have been abandoned. Some of the earliest revisions of Freud’s theory arose from within his own original circle of students. Let’s see how they sought to amend Freud’s views. Extending Psychodynamic Theories Some of those who came after Freud retained his basic rep- resentation of personality as a battleground on which uncon- scious primal urges conflict with social values. However, many of Freud’s intellectual descendants made major adjustments in the psychoanalytic view of personality. In general, these post- Jung recognized creativity as a means to release images from Freudians have made the following changes: both the personal and collective unconscious. Why did Jung t
They put greater emphasis on ego functions, including believe in the two types of unconscious? ego defenses, development of the self, conscious thought processes, and personal mastery. t
They view social variables (culture, family, and peers) as several ways. She challenged Freud’s phallocentric emphasis playing a greater role in shaping personality. on the importance of the penis, hypothesizing that male envy t
They put less emphasis on the importance of general of pregnancy, motherhood, breasts, and suckling is a dynamic sexual urges, or libidinal energy. force in the unconscious of boys and men. This “womb envy” t
They extended personality development beyond leads men to devalue women and to overcompensate by un- childhood to include the entire life span. conscious impulses toward creative work. Horney also placed We will now see how these themes emerged in the theories greater emphasis than did Freud on cultural factors and fo- of Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, and Carl Jung. cused on present character structure rather than on infantile Alfred Adler (1870–1937) rejected the significance of Eros sexuality (Horney, 1937, 1939). Because Horney also had influ- and the pleasure principle. Adler (1929) believed that as help- ence on the development of humanistic theories, we will return less, dependent, small children, people all experience feelings to her ideas in the next section. of inferiority. He argued that all lives are dominated by the Carl Jung (1875–1961) greatly expanded the conception search for ways to overcome those feelings. People compensate of the unconscious. For Jung (1959), the unconscious was not to achieve feelings of adequacy or, more often, overcompen- limited to an individual’s unique life experiences but was filled sate in an attempt to become superior. Personality is structured with fundamental psychological truths shared by the whole hu- around this underlying striving; people develop lifestyles based man race, a collective unconscious. The collective unconscious on particular ways of overcoming their basic, pervasive feelings explains your intuitive understanding of primitive myths, art of inferiority. Personality conflict arises from incompatibility forms, and symbols, which are the universal archetypes of ex- between external environmental pressures and internal striv- istence. An archetype is a primitive symbolic representation ings for adequacy, rather than from competing urges within of a particular experience or object. Each archetype is associ- the person. ated with an instinctive tendency to feel and think about it or Karen Horney (1885–1952) was trained in the psycho- experience it in a special way. Jung postulated many archetypes analytic school but broke from orthodox Freudian theory in that give rise to myths and symbols: the sun god, the hero, the earth mother. Animus was the male archetype, anima was the female archetype, and all men and women experienced both archetypes in varying degrees. The archetype of the self is the mandala, or magic circle; it symbolizes striving for unity and wholeness (Jung, 1973). Jung saw the healthy, integrated personality as balancing opposing forces, such as masculine aggressiveness and femi- nine sensitivity. This view of personality as a constellation of compensating internal forces in dynamic balance was called analytic psychology. In addition, Jung rejected the primary importance of libido so central to Freud’s own theory. Jung collective unconscious The part of an individual’s unconscious that is inherited, evolutionarily developed, and common to all members of the species. archetype A universal, inherited, primitive, and symbolic representation of a particular experience or object. Why might a person’s enthusiasm for boxing suggest the use analytic psychology A branch of psychology that views the person as a of displacement as an ego defense mechanism? constellation of compensatory internal forces in a dynamic balance. Psychodynamic Theories 367 added two equally powerful unconscious instincts: the need to create and the need to become a coherent, whole individual. In the next section on humanist theories, we will see this second need paralleled in the concept of self-actualization. Stop and Review According to Freud’s theory, what behaviors might arise if an individual became fixated at the oral stage of development? How is the ego guided by the reality principle? Although Leon is highly aggressive, he always blames others for starting fights. What defensive mechanism might be at work here? According to Alfred Adler’s view, what drive motivates much of people’s behavior? Why did Carl Rogers emphasize parents’ unconditional positive regard for their children? CRITICAL THINKING Recall the study on the use of defense mechanisms. Why might the researchers have specifically used a rejection episode to produce anxiety? is a constructive, guiding force that moves each person toward Study and Review on MyPsychLab generally positive behaviors and enhancement of the self. The drive for self-actualization at times comes into conflict with the need for approval from the self and others, especially when the person feels that certain obligations or conditions must be met in order to gain approval. For example, Rogers HUMANISTIC THEORIES (1947, 1951, 1977) stressed the importance of unconditional positive regard in raising children. By this, he meant that chil- Humanistic approaches to understanding personality are char- dren should feel they will always be loved and approved of, in acterized by a concern for the integrity of an individual’s per- spite of their mistakes and misbehavior—that they do not have sonal and conscious experience and growth potential. In this to earn their parents’ love. He recommended that, when a child section, you will see how humanistic theorists have developed misbehaves, parents should emphasize that it is the behavior concepts related to the self. You will learn, in addition, what they disapprove of, not the child. Unconditional positive regard additional features set humanistic theories apart from other is important in adulthood, too, because worrying about seek- types of personality theories. ing approval interferes with self-actualization. As an adult, you need to give to and receive unconditional positive regard from those to whom you are close. Most important, you need to feel Features of Humanistic Theories unconditional positive self-regard, or acceptance of yourself, in spite of the weaknesses you might be trying to change. For Carl Rogers (1902–1987), the self is a central concept for Although not often given due credit, Karen Horney was personality. Rogers suggested that we develop a self-concept, another major theorist whose ideas created the foundation of a mental model of our typical behaviors and unique qualities. humanistic psychology (Frager & Fadiman, 1998). Horney Rogers believed that, as we go through life, we strive to experi- came to believe that people have a “real self” that requires fa- ence congruence between our self-concept and our actual life vorable environmental circumstances to be actualized, such as experiences. Rogers’s emphasis on the self signals a key feature an atmosphere of warmth, the goodwill of others, and parental of all humanistic theories, which is an emphasis on the drive love of the child as a “particular individual” (Horney, 1945, toward self-actualization. Self-actualization is a constant striv- 1950). In the absence of those favorable nurturing conditions, ing to realize one’s inherent potential. Recall from Chapter 11 the child develops a basic anxiety that stifles spontaneity of ex- that Abraham Maslow placed self-actualization at the pinnacle pression of real feelings and prevents effective relations with of his hierarchy of needs. The striving toward self-fulfillment others. To cope with their basic anxiety, individuals resort to interpersonal or intrapsychic defenses. Interpersonal defenses produce movement toward others (through excessive compli- ance and self-effacing actions), against others (by aggressive, self-concept A person’s mental model of his or her typical behaviors arrogant, or narcissistic solutions), and away from others and unique qualities. (through detachment). Intrapsychic defenses operate to de- self-actualization A concept in personality psychology referring to velop for some people an unrealistic idealized self-image that a person’s constant striving to realize his or her potential and to develop inherent talents and capabilities. generates a “search for glory” to justify it and a pride system unconditional positive regard Complete love and acceptance of an that operates on rigid rules of conduct to live up to a gran- individual by another person, such as a parent for a child, with no diose self-concept. Such people often live by the “tyranny of conditions attached. shoulds,” self-imposed obligations, such as “I should be perfect, 368 Chapter 13 Understanding Human Personality generous, attractive, brave,” and so forth. Horney believed that difficult to explore in research. They ask, “What exactly is self- the goal of a humanistic therapy was to help the individual actualization? Is it an inborn tendency, or is it created by the achieve the joy of self-realization and promote the inherent cultural context?” Humanistic theories also do not tradition- constructive forces in human nature that support a striving for ally focus on the particular characteristics of individuals. They self-fulfillment. are more theories about human nature and about qualities all As you have seen, humanistic theories emphasize self- people share than about the individual personality or the basis actualization or progress toward the real self. In addition, of differences among people. Other psychologists note that, by humanistic theories have been described as being holistic, dis- emphasizing the role of the self as a source of experience and positional, and phenomenological. Let’s see why. action, humanistic psychologists neglect the important envi- Humanistic theories are holistic because they explain peo- ronmental variables that also influence behavior. ple’s separate acts in terms of their entire personalities; people Despite these limitations, a type of contemporary re- are not seen as the sum of discrete traits that each influence search can be traced in part to the humanist tradition that behavior in different ways. Maslow believed that people are in- focuses directly on individual narrative identities or life sto- trinsically motivated toward the upper levels of the hierarchy ries (McAdams & Olson, 2010). The tradition of using psy- of needs (discussed in Chapter 11), unless deficiencies at the chological theory to understand the details of an individual’s lower levels weigh them down. life—to produce a psychobiography—can be traced back to Humanistic theories are dispositional because they focus Freud’s analysis of Leonardo da Vinci (Freud, 1910/1957; see on the innate qualities within a person that exert a major influ- Elms, 1988, for a critique of Freud’s work). Psychobiography ence over the direction behavior will take. Situational factors is defined as “the systematic use of psychological (especially are seen as constraints and barriers (like the strings that tie personality) theory to transform a life into a coherent and down balloons). Once freed from negative situational condi- illuminating story” (McAdams, 1988, p. 2). Consider the great tions, the actualizing tendency should actively guide people to artist Pablo Picasso. Picasso suffered a series of traumas as a choose life-enhancing situations. However, humanistic theo- young child, including a serious earthquake and the death of ries are not dispositional in the same sense as trait theories or a young sister. A psychobiography might attempt to explain psychodynamic theories. In those views, personal dispositions some of Picasso’s vast artistic creativity as the lifelong resi- are recurrent themes played out in behavior again and again. due of his responses to these early traumas (Gardner, 1993). Humanistic dispositions are oriented specifically toward crea- When a well-known or historical figure is the subject of a tivity and growth. Each time a humanistic disposition is ex- psychobiography, a researcher may turn to published work, ercised, the person changes a little, so that the disposition is diaries, and letters as sources of relevant data. For more ordi- never expressed in the same way twice. Over time, humanistic nary individuals, researchers may directly elicit narratives of dispositions guide the individual toward self-actualization, the life experiences. The request might be, for example, for partici- purest expression of these motives. pants to reflect on key events in their lives: “Why do you think Humanistic theories are phenomenological because they that this [was] an important event in your life story? What emphasize an individual’s frame of reference and subjective does this event say about who you are, who you were, who you view of reality—not the objective perspective of an observer might be, or how you have developed over time?” (McAdams or of a therapist. Thus a humanistic psychologist always strives et al., 2006, p. 1379). The characteristic themes that emerge to see each person’s unique point of view. This view is also over a series of narrative accounts support the holistic and a present-oriented view; past influences are important only to phenomenological version of personality that was put forth the extent that they have brought the person to the present by the early humanists: People construct their identities by situation, and the future represents goals to achieve. Thus, un- weaving life stories out of the strands of narrative. Personal like psychodynamic theories, humanistic theories do not see accounts provide a window on people’s views of themselves people’s present behaviors as unconsciously guided by past and interpersonal relationships. experiences. Humanistic theorists emphasized each individual’s drive The upbeat humanist view of personality was a welcome toward self-actualization. This group recognized, however, that treat for many psychologists who had been brought up people’s progress toward this goal is determined, in part, by re- on a diet of bitter-tasting Freudian medicine. Humanistic alities of their environments. We turn now to theories that di- approaches focus directly on improvement—on making life rectly examine how individuals’ behaviors are shaped by their more palatable—rather than dredging up painful memories environments. that are sometimes better left repressed. The humanist perspec- tive emphasizes each person’s ability to realize his or her fullest potential. Stop and Review What is self-actualization? Evaluation of Humanistic Theories In what ways are humanistic theories dispositional? Freud’s theory was often criticized for providing the too- What is a psychobiography? pessimistic view that human nature develops out of conflicts, Study and Review on MyPsychLab traumas, and anxieties. Humanistic theories arose to celebrate the healthy personality that strives for happiness and self- actualization. It is difficult to criticize theories that encour- age and appreciate people, even for their faults. Even so, psychobiography The use of psychological (especially personality) critics have complained that humanistic concepts are fuzzy and theory to describe and explain an individual’s course through life. Humanistic Theories 369 SOCIAL-LEARNING AND COGNITIVE THEORIES Common to all the theories you’ve seen so far is an emphasis on hypothesized inner mechanisms—traits, instincts, impulses, tendencies toward self-actualization—that propel behavior and form the basis of a functioning personality. What most of these theories lacked, however, was a solid link between personal- ity and particular behaviors. Psychodynamic and humanistic theories, for example, provide accounts of the total personality but do not predict specific actions. Another tradition of per- sonality theory emerged from a more direct focus on individual differences in behavior. Recall from Chapter 6 that much of a person’s behavior can be predicted from contingencies in the environment. Psychologists with a learning theory orientation look to the environmental circumstances that control behavior. Personality is seen as the sum of the overt and covert responses that are reliably elicited by an individual’s reinforcement his- tory. Learning theory approaches suggest that people are differ- ent because they have had different histories of reinforcement. This next set of theories has as a shared starting point that behavior is influenced by environmental contingencies. How- ever, these contemporary social-learning and cognitive theories go one step further to emphasize the importance of cognitive processes as well as behavioral ones. Those researchers who have proposed cognitive theories of personality point out that there are important individual differences in the way people If your parents complimented you every time you got a new think about and define any external situation. Like humanis- haircut, how might that affect your confidence about your tic theories, cognitive theories emphasize that you participate appearance and grooming as an adult? Suppose they were in creating your own personality. For example, you actively regularly critical. What effect could that have? choose your own environments to a great extent; you do not just react passively. You weigh alternatives and select the set- tings in which you act and are acted upon—you choose to enter situations that you expect to be reinforcing and to avoid those value—the value that an individual assigns to a particular re- that are unsatisfying and uncertain. ward. If you’ve had a tough semester, a B might have more Let’s look now at more concrete embodiments of these value to you than it would in a different context. On Rotter’s ideas. We visit the theories of Julian Rotter, Walter Mischel, view, you can only begin to predict people’s behavior if you can and Albert Bandura. assess both their expectancy with respect to a reward and the extent to which they value a reward. Rotter emphasized that people bring specific expectancies Rotter’s Expectancy Theory to the many situations they face in life. However, Rotter also believed that people develop a more general expectancy about Julian Rotter (1954) focused his theory on expectancy, which the extent to which they can control the rewards they obtain. is the extent to which people believe that their behaviors in Rotter (1966) defined a dimemsion of locus of control: Some particular situations will bring about rewards. Suppose, for ex- people—known as internals—believe more strongly that the ample, that you need to decide how much to practice before outcomes of their actions are contingent on what they do; other a presentation in class. You’d like to get at least a B. Having people—known as externals—believe that the outcomes of their a high expectancy means that you think it’s very likely that actions are contingent on environmental factors. In Table 13.4, extra practice will lead to a B or better; having a low expect- you’ll see sample items from Rotter’s Internal-External Scale. ancy means that you’re not at all confident that extra practice To complete the scale, you choose (a) or (b) from each item will help with your grade. Your expectancies arise, in part, be- as the statement you believe to be more accurate. These exam- cause of your own history of reinforcement: If practice has led ples should give you a sense of some differences in the ways to rewards in the past, you’ll have a stronger expectancy that that internals and externals generate expectancies about life it will lead to a reward again. Rotter also emphasized reward outcomes. Researchers have consistently demonstrated the im- portance of people’s locus of control orientations. For example, one study examined the relationship between people’s locus of control orientation at age 10 and their mental and physical expectancy The extent to which people believe that their behaviors in particular situations will bring about rewards. health at age 30 (Gale et al., 2008). The 30-year-olds who had locus of control People’s general expectancy about the extent to which been more internally oriented as children were, on the whole, the rewards they obtain are contingent on their own actions or on in better health. They were, for example, at lower risk for environmental factors. obesity, high blood pressure, and psychological distress. The 370 Chapter 13 Understanding Human Personality Table 13.4 t Sample Items from the rather abrupt and unfriendly as he begins to spend Internal–External Scale more time with that person. Jim, on the other hand, is unique in that he is typically shy and quiet with 1. a. In the long run people get the respect they deserve in the world. people who he does not know well but becomes very b. Unfortunately, an individual’s worth often passes unrecognized gregarious once he begins to know someone well. no matter how hard he tries. (Shoda et al., 1993a, p. 1023) 2. a. Without the right breaks, one cannot be an effective leader. If we were to average John’s and Jim’s overall friendliness, b. Capable people who fail to become leaders have not taken we would probably get about the same value on this trait— advantage of their opportunities. but that would fail to capture important differences in their 3. a. Most people don’t realize the extent to which their lives are behavior. According to Mischel (1973, 2004), how you respond controlled by accidental happenings. to a specific environmental input depends on the variables b. There really is no such thing as “luck.” defined in Table 13.5. Do you see how each variable listed 4. a. What happens to me is my own doing. would affect the way in which a person would behave in par- b. Sometimes I feel that I don’t have enough control over the ticular situations? Try to invent a situation in which you would direction my life is taking. produce behavior different from the characters listed in the ta- ble because you contrast on the particular variable. You may Note: 1a, 2b, 3b, and 4a indicate a more internal locus of control orientation. wonder what determines the nature of these variables for a From J. B. Rotter, Generalized expectancies for internal versus external specific individual. Mischel believes that they result from his locus of control of reinforcement, Table 1. Psychological Monographs, or her history of observations and interactions with other peo- 80 (1):11–12. Copyright © 1966 by the American Psychological Association. ple and with inanimate aspects of the physical environment Adapted with permission. (Mischel, 1973). I want to provide you with a concrete example of how the researchers suggested that people with external orientations variables in Mischel’s theory explain differences with respect might be in poorer shape because they believe that their health to the particular behaviors people produce in the same situa- is outside their control—and therefore they take few actions to tions. Let’s consider a study that documented how interactions better their health. of competencies and self-regulatory plans (see Table 13.5) in- teract to predict aggressive behavior among 10-year-old boys. Mischel’s Cognitive–affective Featured Study The study focused on 59 boys who were attending a sum- Personality Theory mer camp (Ayduk et al., 2007). To measure their compe- tencies, the researchers gave each boy a test of verbal Walter Mischel developed an influential theory of the cog- intelligence. To measure their self-regulatory abilities, the nitive basis of personality. Mischel emphasizes that people researchers had each boy engage in a task that measured actively participate in the cognitive organization of their in- his capacity to delay his gratification. The boys were brought teractions with the environment. His approach emphasizes the into a room with a small and large pile of food of a type they importance of understanding how behavior arises as a function particularly enjoyed (for example, M&M candies). To obtain of interactions between persons and situations (Mischel, 2004). the larger pile, the boys had to wait 25 minutes without Consider this example: ringing a bell to call a researcher back—if they used the John’s unique personality may be seen most clearly in bell, they got only the small pile. To endure the 25-minute that he is always very friendly when meeting someone wait, the boys needed to be able to regulate their own be- for the first time, but that he also predictably becomes havior. In particular, to make the time pass more easily, Table 13.5
t
Person Variables in Mischel’s Cognitive–Affective Personality Theory Variable Encodings The way you categorize information about yourself, As soon as Bob meets someone, he tries to figure out other people, events, and situations how wealthy he or she is. Expectancies Your beliefs about the social world and likely outcomes Greg invites friends to the movies, but he never expects and beliefs for given actions in particular situations; your beliefs them to say “yes.” about your ability to bring outcomes about Affects Your feelings and emotions, including physiological Cindy blushes very easily. responses Goals and values The outcomes and affective states you do and do not Peter wants to be president of his value; your goals and life projects college class. Competencies The behaviors you can accomplish and plans for Jan can speak English, French, Russian, and Japanese and self-regulatory plans generating cognitive and behavioral outcomes and expects to work for the United Nations. Social-Learning and Cognitive Theories 371  they needed to be able to divert their attention from the candy and the bell. For that reason, the researchers used the boys’ ability to control their attention as a measure of self-regulatory ability. Finally, to measure aggression, the researchers obtained multiple assessments from the camp counselors about the boys’ verbal and physical aggression during group activities. As you can see in Figure 13.5, to predict the boys’ levels of aggression it’s important to know both about competencies and self-regulatory abilities. In particular, boys with high verbal intelligence but low ability to control their attention were substantially more aggressive than their peers who had both high intelligence and high ability to control their attention. You might expect that more intelligent boys would have knowl- edge that would allow them to function in social environments without resorting to aggression. This study demonstrates that knowledge alone is not sufficient—the boys also need to have the ability and motivation to perform alternative behaviors. The results allow you to understand why Mischel’s personal- ity theory focuses on the interactions among several different types of variables. As you can see in Table 13.5, Mischel’s theory also considers the role that people’s goals have in defining their responses to particular situations. Research suggests that people differ both in their choice of life goals and the strategies they use to implement those goals (Cantor & Kihlstrom, 1987; Kihlstrom & Would you feel comfortable making personality judgments Cantor, 2000). Can you see how choices and skills with respect about these boys from this one snapshot? Why might you to goals could produce the different patterns of behavior you want to know their patterns of behavior across different types would recognize as personality? For example, some people have of situations? intimacy as an important goal—they strongly seek to foster interdependence and engage in self-disclosure—whereas other people don’t bring those needs to friendships. These goals influ- 1 ence behavior: People with strong intimacy goals work harder 0.8 in relationships to minimize conflicts (Sanderson et al., 2005). In this case, you recognize personality in the consistent way in 0.6 which people’s goals lead them to behave. 0.4 Aggression 0.2 0 Bandura’s Cognitive –0.2 Social-learning Theory –0.4 –0.6 Through his theoretical writing and extensive research with –0.8 children and adults, Albert Bandura (1986, 1999) has been –1 an eloquent champion of a social-learning approach to un- Low High derstanding personality (recall from Chapter 6 his studies of Verbal intelligence aggressive behavior in children). This approach combines principles of learning with an emphasis on human interactions Control of attention in social settings. From a social-learning perspective, human Low High beings are not driven by inner forces, nor are they helpless pawns of environmental influence. The social-learning ap- FIGURE 13.5 Boys’ Levels of Aggressive Behavior proach stresses the cognitive processes that are involved in Boys’ levels of aggressive behavior at a summer camp acquiring and maintaining patterns of behavior and, thus, reflected an interaction between their verbal intelligence and personality. their ability to control their attention to delay gratification. Bandura’s theory points to a complex interaction of in- Data from O. Ayduk, M. L. Rodriguez, W. Mischel, Y. Shoda, & dividual factors, behavior, and environmental stimuli. Each J. Wright. Verbal intelligence and self-regulatory competencies, Journal of can influence or change the others, and the direction of Research in Personality (41): 374–388, Copyright © 2007. change is rarely one way—it is reciprocal. Your behavior can 372 Chapter 13 Understanding Human Personality  chances when you expect to be ineffectual. You avoid situations when you don’t feel adequate. Even when you do, in fact, have Person the ability—and the desire—you may not take the required ac- tion or persist to complete the task successfully, if you think you lack what it takes. Beyond actual accomplishments, there are three other sources of information for self-efficacy judgments: t
vicarious experience—your observations of the performance of others t
persuasion—others may convince you that you can do something, or you may convince yourself t
monitoring of your emotional arousal as you think about or approach a task—for example, anxiety suggests low expectations of efficacy; excitement suggests expectations of success Environment Behavior Self-efficacy judgments influence how much effort you expend and how long you persist when faced with difficulty in a wide range of life situations (Bandura, 1997, 2006). Let’s consider the impact of self-efficacy in academic set- FIGURE 13.6 Reciprocal Determinism tings. Research suggests, for example, that how vigorously and In reciprocal determinism, the individual, the individual’s persistently you study this chapter may depend more on your behavior, and the environment all interact to influence sense of self-efficacy than on actual ability. and modify the other components. Featured Study A group of 1,291 sophomores from five California State be influenced by your attitudes, beliefs, or prior history of re- University campuses participated in a study that examined inforcement as well as by stimuli available in the environment. the impact of self-efficacy beliefs on college performance What you do can have an effect on the environment, and im- (Vuong et al., 2010). Each student completed measures of portant aspects of your personality can be affected by the envi- self-efficacy that related to his or her college experience: ronment or by feedback from your behavior. This important self-efficacy in academic coursework and self-efficacy concept, reciprocal determinism, implies that you must ex- for social interactions with faculty, counselor, and peers. amine all components if you want to completely understand They used a 10-point scale ranging from “Not confident” human behavior, personality, and social ecology (Bandura, to “Extremely confident” to indicate how they felt about 1999; see Figure 13.6). So, for example, if you don’t generally completing various tasks such as “Asking questions in think of yourself as an athlete, you may not choose to be active class” and “Making friends at school” (Zajacova et al., 2005, in track-and-field events, but if you live near a pool, you may p. 700). The sophomores also reported their GPAs and how nonetheless spend time swimming. If you are outgoing, you’ll likely they were to persist with their education. Self-efficacy talk to others sitting around the pool and thereby create a more for academic coursework predicted both the students’ GPAs sociable atmosphere, which, in turn, makes it a more enjoyable and persistence (Vuong et al., 2010). However, self-efficacy environment. This is one instance of reciprocal determinism for social interactions was unrelated to the measures of among person, place, and behavior. academic performance. You may recall from Chapter 6 that Bandura’s social- learning theory emphasizes observational learning as the process by which a person changes his or her behavior based This study illustrates how people have self-efficacy for differ- on observations of another person’s behavior. Through ent domains of life experience. In fact, we’d expect that people observational learning, children and adults acquire an enor- would often have different amounts of self-efficacy in different mous range of information about their social environment. domains. What might the researchers have measured to assess Through observation, you learn what is appropriate and gets the importance of self-efficacy for social interactions in the so- rewarded and what gets punished or ignored. Because you can phomores’ college experiences? use memory and think about external events, you can fore- Bandura’s theory of self-efficacy also acknowledges the see the possible consequences of your actions without having importance of the environment. Expectations of failure or to actually experience them. You may acquire skills, attitudes, and beliefs simply by watching what others do and the conse- quences that follow. reciprocal determinism A concept of Albert Bandura’s social-learning As his theory developed, Bandura (1997) elaborated self- theory that refers to the notion that a complex reciprocal interaction efficacy as a central construct. Self-efficacy is the belief that one exists among the individual, his or her behavior, and environmental can perform adequately in a particular situation. Your sense of stimuli and that each of these components affects the others. self-efficacy influences your perceptions, motivation, and per- self-efficacy A belief that one can perform adequately in a particular formance in many ways. You don’t even try to do things or take situation. Social-Learning and Cognitive Theories 373  FIGURE 13.7 Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Model Person Behavior Outcome This model positions efficacy expectations between the person and his or her behavior; outcome expectations are positioned between behavior and its anticipated outcomes. Efficacy Outcome expectations expectations success—and corresponding decisions to stop trying or to Stop and Review persevere—may be based on perceptions of the supportiveness or unsupportiveness of the environment, in addition to percep- In Julian Rotter’s theory, what does it mean to have an tions of one’s own adequacy or inadequacy. Such expectations external locus of control orientation? are called outcome-based expectancies. Figure 13.7 displays In Walter Mischel’s theory, what five types of variables how the parts of Bandura’s theory fit together. Behavioral out- explain individual differences? comes depend both on people’s perceptions of their own abili- What three components are involved in Albert ties and their perceptions of the environment. Bandura’s theory of reciprocal determinism? CRITICAL THINKING Recall the study that examined Evaluation of Social-Learning boys’ aggression in summer camp. Why was it important and Cognitive Theories that the researchers obtained multiple assessments of the One set of criticisms leveled against social-learning and cog- boys’ levels of aggression? nitive theories is that they often overlook emotion as an im- portant component of personality. In psychodynamic theories, Study and Review on MyPsychLab emotions like anxiety play a central role. In social-learning and cognitive theories, emotions are perceived merely as by- products of thoughts and behavior or are just included with other types of thoughts rather than being assigned independ- ent importance. For those who feel that emotions are central SELF THEORIES to the functioning of human personality, this is a serious flaw. Cognitive theories are also attacked for not fully recognizing We have arrived now at theories of personality that are most im- the impact of unconscious motivation on behavior and affect. mediately personal: They deal directly with how each individual A second set of criticisms focuses on the vagueness of ex- manages his or her sense of self. What is your conception of planations about the way personal constructs and competen- your self? Do you think of your self reacting consistently to the cies are created. Cognitive theorists have often had little to say world? Do you try to present a consistent self to your friends about the developmental origins of adult personality; their fo- and family? What impact do positive and negative experiences cus on the individual’s perception of the current behavior set- have on the way you think about your self? Let’s begin our con- ting obscures the individual’s history. sideration of these questions with a brief historical review. Despite these criticisms, cognitive personality theories The concern for analysis of the self found its strong- have made major contributions to current thinking. Mischel’s est early advocate in William James (1892). James identified awareness of the situation has brought about a better under- three components of self-experience: the material me (the bod- standing of the interaction between what a person brings to a ily self, along with surrounding physical objects), the social me behavior setting and what that setting brings out of the per- (your awareness of how others view you), and the spiritual me son. Bandura’s ideas have led to improvements in the way (the self that monitors private thoughts and feelings). James teachers educate children and help them achieve as well as believed that everything that you associate with your iden- new treatments in the areas of health, business, and sports tity becomes, in some sense, a part of the self. This explains performance. why people may react defensively when their friends or family Do these cognitive personality theories provide you with members—a part of the self—have been attacked. The concept insights about your own personality and behaviors? You can of self was also central to psychodynamic theories. Self-insight start to see how you define yourself in part through interac- was an important part of the psychoanalytic cure in Freud’s tions with the environment. Let’s turn now to theories that can theory, and Jung stressed that to fully develop the self, one add even further to your definition of self. must integrate and accept all aspects of one’s conscious and 374 Chapter 13 Understanding Human Personality unconscious life. Finally for this historical review, you already (Vignoles et al., 2006). To preserve their self-image, people learned that Carl Rogers had the self as the cornerstone of his engage in a variety of forms of self-enhancement: People take humanistic theory of personality development. steps to view their own actions and behaviors as consistently How has the self been treated in contemporary theory? We positive (Sedikides & Gregg, 2008). For example, when people will first consider cognitive aspects of self-concepts. We then doubt their ability to perform a task, they may engage in self- visit the concept of self-esteem and the steps people take to handicapping behavior. They deliberately sabotage their per- preserve self esteem. Finally, we’ll look at the important topic formance! The purpose of this strategy is to have a ready-made of how views of the self differ across cultures. excuse for failure that does not imply lack of ability (McCrae & Hirt, 2001). Thus, a student might party with friends instead of studying for an important exam. That way, if he doesn’t suc- ceed, he can blame his failure on low effort rather than low Self-Concepts and Self-Esteem aptitude. Note that my use of “he” in this example is deliberate. The self-concept is a dynamic mental structure that motivates, Research suggests that men consistently engage in more self- interprets, organizes, mediates, and regulates intrapersonal handicapping than do women. and interpersonal behaviors and processes. The self-concept includes many components. Among them are your memories Featured Study Before taking an intelligence test, male and female psychol- about yourself; beliefs about your traits, motives, values, and ogy students were given the opportunity to work through abilities; the ideal self that you would most like to become; 18 practice items (McCrae et al., 2008). The researchers the possible selves that you contemplate enacting; positive or gave half the students practice matters instructions: Those negative evaluations of yourself (self-esteem); and beliefs about students were told that without appropriate practice their what others think of you (Chen et al., 2006). Chapter 7 dis- intelligence tests scores would not be valid. The other stu- cussed schemas as “knowledge packages” that embody complex dents received practice does not matter instructions: Those generalizations about the structure of the environment. Your students were told that practice would likely have no effect self-concept contains schemas about the self—self-schemas— on their test scores. Suppose you were in the practice mat- that allow you to organize information about yourself, just as ters condition. If you wanted to have a ready excuse for other schemas allow you to manage other aspects of your expe- your (potentially) low intelligence score, you might choose rience. However, self-schemas influence more than just the way not to practice very much. As you can see in Figure 13.8 you process information about yourself. Research indicates that on page 376, that’s, on average, what the men chose to do. these schemas, which you frequently use to interpret your own Women who were told that practiced mattered, practiced behavior, influence the way you process information about quite a bit. Men who had the same instructions practiced other people as well (Krueger & Stanke, 2001; Mussweiler & least of all. To understand this difference, the researchers Bodenhausen, 2002). Thus you interpret other people’s actions asked the participants to complete a scale that had items in terms of what you know and believe about yourself. such as “I try to devote my full effort to every class I take” A person’s self-esteem is a generalized evaluation of the and “I pride myself in being a hard worker” (p. 309). The self. People differ in their levels of self-esteem. Because I have women consistently agreed more with such statements described the importance of genetics for other aspects of per- than did their male peers. sonality, you may not be surprised to learn that individual differences in self-esteem have a genetic component: People inherit a tendency toward high or low self-esteem (Neiss et al., These results support the researchers’ claim that women put 2006). However, environmental factors also have important ef- too much value on effort to engage in self-handicapping. The fects. For example, people’s satisfaction or dissatisfaction with effort women expend is an important contributor to their their physical appearance has a major impact on their reports self-esteem. of self-esteem (Donnellan et al., 2007). Self-esteem also varies In recent years, researchers have provided support for a with respect to people’s perceptions of their ability to navigate theory that places self-esteem in a broader perspective. Terror in the social world. People who are high in self-esteem typically management theory proposes that self-esteem helps people feel that they will function well in social relationships; peo- cope with the inevitability of death (Greenberg, 2008). Terror ple with low self-esteem have doubts about their social value management theory suggests that people wish to achieve sym- (Anthony et al., 2007). bolic immortality which “is conferred by cultural institutions Self-esteem can strongly influence people’s thoughts, that enable people to feel part of something larger, more signif- moods, and behavior (Swann et al., 2007). In fact, researchers icant, and more eternal than their own individual lives through have linked a number of negative outcomes to low levels of self- connections and contributions to their families, nations, esteem. For example, among adolescents and college students, professions, and ideologies” (Pyszczynski et al., 2004, p. 436). low self-esteem was related to aggression and antisocial behav- ior (Donnellan et al., 2005). Similarly, people who reported low self-esteem as adolescents had poorer mental and physical health as well as more financial problems as adults (Orth et al., self-esteem A generalized evaluative attitude toward the self that influences both moods and behavior and that exerts a powerful 2008; Trzeniewski et al., 2006). These results suggest that hav- effect on a range of personal and social behaviors. ing low self-esteem can undermine people’s ability to set goals self-handicapping The process of developing, in anticipation of failure, for positive outcomes and cope with negative life events. behavioral reactions and explanations that minimize ability deficits Some people clearly experience low self-esteem. However, as possible attributions for the failure. evidence suggests that most people go out of their way to main- terror management theory A theory proposing that self-esteem helps tain self-esteem and to sustain the integrity of their self-concept people cope with the inevitability of death. Self Theories 375  1 2003). Instead, people’s self-views with respect to more specific 0.8 domains of performance (such as particular academic subjects) provide better predictive information about their likely per- 0.6 formance (Swann et al., 2007). Similarly, programs to boost self- Practice index 0.4 esteem are best targeted toward particular domains in which 0.2 people can learn strategies that actually change performance. 0 –0.2 The Cultural Construction of Self –0.4 The discussion so far has focused on constructs relevant to the –0.6 self, such as self-esteem and self-handicapping, that apply quite Practice does not matter Practice matters widely across individuals. However, researchers on the self Instructions have also begun to study the way in which self-concepts and Men Women self-development are affected by differing cultural constraints. If you have grown up in a Western culture, you are likely to FIGURE 13.8 Men’s and Women’s be pretty comfortable with the research reviewed so far: The Self-Handicapping theories and constructs match the ways that Western cul- tures conceptualize the self. However, the type of culture from The practice index combined the number of practice items a which the Western self emerges—an individualistic culture—is student completed and the amount of time he or she spent in the minority with respect to the world’s population, which practicing into a single measure. Positive scores indicate more includes about 70 percent collectivist cultures. Individualistic than average practice; negative scores indicate less than cultures emphasize individuals’ needs, whereas collectivist cul- average practice. When instructions suggested that practice tures emphasize the needs of the group (Triandis, 1994, 1995). didn’t matter, the difference between men’s and women’s This overarching emphasis has important implications for how practice was small. However, when students believed their each member of these cultures conceptualizes his or her self: practice did matter, women practiced considerably more than Hazel Markus and Shinobu Kitayama (1991; Kitayama et al., the men. 1995; Markus et al., 1997) have argued that each culture gives Data from S. M. McCrae, E. R. Hirt, & B. J. Milner, She works hard for the money, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology (44): 292–311, © 2008. rise to different interpretations of the meaning of self—or dif- ferent construals of self: t
Individualistic cultures encourage independent construals of self—“Achieving the cultural goal of independence requires construing oneself as an individual People attain self-esteem when they believe that they have whose behavior is organized and made meaningful made valuable contributions that provide a route to symbolic primarily by reference to one’s own inte