Psychology PDF

it is useful for the execution of a specific goal) For WM, the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) is crucial. Studies have demonstrated that regions of the dlPFC are engaged when people perform a working memory task, or similar tasks that tax out short-term memory abilities 2. The Order Eff...

it is useful for the execution of a specific goal) For WM, the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) is crucial. Studies have demonstrated that regions of the dlPFC are engaged when people perform a working memory task, or similar tasks that tax out short-term memory abilities 2. The Order Effect The ‘Order Effect’ -> When people are presented with more information than the STM can deal with, they tend to better recall information that was eithe r presented at the beginning (primacy effect) or at the end (r ecency effect) of the message Long-Term Memory Long-term memory does not have a limited capacity (unlimited) and once our memories get her, they remain for a very long period of time, even forever! LTM is like a massive, integrated spider’s web Information is transferred from STM to LTM provided that a person thinks about (elaborates’) the meaning of the stimulus and relates it to ot her existing pieces of information The more integrated the information is in the LTM, the e asier it will be to remember How information is organized has an impact upon how easily infor mation can be stored in and retrieved from LTM Different Subsystems of Memory: Episodic M., Semantic M., Non-Declarative Memories, etc. Commercials often try to trigger episodic memories by foc using on experiences that are shared by a large number of people Remember! Associations can be formed between anything, and they may happen consciously or unconsciously Priming Effect à Already existing information is used to guide our judgement about novel pieces of information The hippocampus is not the end stage for memory content. With time, a transfer of information takes place from the hippocampus to the neocortex (Marr 1971) à Memories are eventually stored in associative memory networks in the neocortex In the neocortex, the organization of information is content- structured and stored in so-called associative memory networks The networks supporting memory representations are widely distributed over the neocortex (Martin, 2007) These areas of the neocortex involved in memory representations are strongly interconnected with the hippocampus IN SHORT Memories are initially stored in the hippocampus; over time, information gets integrated and stored in the neocortical representational areas The hippocampus is densely interconnected with the neocortex through cortical areas surrounding the hippocampus in the medial temporal lobe The ‘Squire-Zola’ Model Of Memory Main Distinctions Conscious (‘Declarative’) vs. Unconscious (‘Non- Declarative) Memories Declarative Memories -> Memories for ‘facts’ (‘Episodic’) vs. Memories for ‘knowledge’ (‘Semantic’) A more fruitful model of memory? Katharina Henke (2010) has suggested the following alternative: ”A new model [of memory] is therefore required in which memory systems are distinguished based on the processing operations involved rather than by consciousness” Repetition lf you see the same thing over and over again, the chance that it will be integrated increases Things that repeatedly happen have a higher chance to be consolidated 1. Repetition signals importance (things that repeat allude to regularity in the environment) It is fundamental for brands to be consistent Things that are consistently paired to a brand can become iconic brand assets These brand assets can subsequently be used in marketing communications as very effective branding cues Also, more abstract things such as colors, fonts or package shapes can become associated to brands with consistent use “REPETITA IUVANT” Things (e.g., objects, concepts) that are presented together, or happen at the same time, become connected in the memory networks of the brain Emotions “All memories are equal, but some memories are more equal than others” Memories that are paired with emotions are much more likely to stick Emotions work as a label in the brain, signaling importance, like a little tag saying “keep” This holds true for both positive and negative emotions  (Hamann et al. 1999) Holding on to emotional memories is a smart survival strategy You need to remember a situation that has put you in danger to be able to avoid getting into a similar dangerous situation again Automatic retrieval cues of an event -> Smell, taste, location Existing Memories Memories that fit well with the information we already know are better encoded and less vulnerable to decay* (Alba and Hasher 1983) For marketers, this means that tying new information to existing memories can be very effective When a celebrity is used in an ad, it builds onto the positive associations that are already tied to the celebrity, and people subsequently like and remember the product better (Klucharev, Smidts, and Fernandez 2008) *During the encoding process, the new information works as a retrieval cue for related existing knowledge in the brain The associated existing knowledge automatically becomes reactivated The new memory trace will contain both the new information and some of the existing knowledge that came to mind when receiving that information KEY TERMS EPISODIC MEMORY: A type of long-term memory that involves conscious recollection of previous experiences together with their context in terms of time, place, associated emotions, and so on SEMANTIC MEMORY: A type of long-term memory involving the capacity to recall words, concepts, or numbers, which is essential for the use and understanding of language ‘PRIMING’ EFFECT: A technique in which the introduction of one stimulus influences how people respond to a subsequent stimulus EXPLICIT MEMORY: The conscious, intentional recollection of factual information, previous experiences, and concepts Examples: Remembering what you learned in your psychology class, recalling your phone number, identifying who the current president is, writing a research paper, remembering what time you're meeting a friend to go to a movie, etc. IMPLICIT MEMORY: A type of long-term memory related to the impact that activities and experiences can have on your behavior. You might also hear it referred to as non-declarative memory. You access your implicit memory unconsciously without even thinking about it Implicit memories are of sensory and automatized behaviors, and explicit memories are of information, episodes or events KEY TAKE AWAYS Our memory is generally thought to consist of three types: Sensory stores, STM (Short Term Memory), LTM (Long Term Memory) Consumers will recall previously learned information better if the environment in which they are trying to remember it resembles the one in which they learned it Repetition can aid memory, as can the use of good visual stimuli Interference can take place when stimuli are similar in nature - this can be combated by repeatedly exposing consumers to a marketing message LESSON 7 18/10/2021 Senses and Perception (Chapter 4 from Introduction to Neuromarketing and consumer neuroscience excluding the p 64 Thalamus and Vision, 68 Further convergence of visual information and 80 Dwindling brain specialization with increase age) Remember: Sensation is NOT perception à Sensation is when stimulus hit our senses. It goes to the brain and produces electrochemical and physical responses. When the information gets to the senses. It arrives to the brain and gets elaborated and processed thrugh sensory cortices à Here we have perception, which is when these stimuli are interpreted In neuromarketing: A product is what the consumer perceive it is ➙ the product is not what the product is, but it is what we perceive it is, it’s our representation of the product A product is a mental construction Perception is an individual activity that depends on the context and from our previous experiences THE SENSORY MARKETING EXPERIMENT It was an experiment with fruit tea by Rosenlacher & Tichy, 2020. It is a study in which they analyzed the sensorial perception of a fruit tea ➙ through this analysis they could deduce that the first sense through which we get 80/90% of the information that we have is through sight. Smell as well was important to form opinion and analyze things because it is one of the most sensitive senses and it activates an area really closed to the limbic system closed to emotions and so it triggers our emotions. From the analysis they deduce that: The first sense through which we get 89-90% of the information we have, is SIGHT The second sense is SMELL , since it’s the most sensitive sensory organ and olfactory receptors travel directly into the emotional experience of a person SEEING The most dominant sense The by far most dominant sense we have vision, both in terms of how we orient ourselves and in the sheer real estate that the brain devotes to vision. We are visual creatures this means that through sight we do many things like perceive and judge many aspects of our life. Moreover, even tasting happens at first with sight ➙ you start tasting food with your sight. Our visual field is very wide ➙ 200 degrees. This doesn’t mean that we see all around because we actually see where our eyes point (visual focus) where we have a strong visual acuity ➙ about 2 degrees. But if there is movement in the 200 degrees, bottom- up attention is hit and so we move our head and see. These two properties of the eyes allow us to both detect things in the periphery (low acuity, but high sensitivity to contrast and movement) and focus on a few selected items with strong acuity (high acuity and color sensitivity, but low sensitivity to contrast and movement). The eye functioning Our eyes are collections of millions of photo sensors. The eye is like a photographic machine in which light is perceived on the retina. In the retina there are: Rods – high sensitivity to light, contrasts, movements, night vision Cones – sensible to wavelengths, colors and details, but lower sensitivity to contrast Rods and cones capture the light that hits the back of the eye. Their distribution is uneven (more rods) Errors and the blind spot à here there are no light receptors, so our brain helps us to complete the image, it interprets the world around it VISION PROCESSING When all cones and rods gather their information, they project this information backwards towards the brain. ➔ They do so through a bundle called through the Optical Nerve. Here there are no light receptors (blind spot) ➔ It then reaches the Thalamic Nuclei (as a filter for intense information); here the optic nerves from each eye, cross each other, in an X-shaped-feature called the Optic Chiasm. ➔ From the Thalamus, the crossed visual signals are projected to the Primary Visual Cortex (information from the two eyes is united) The optic chiasm The optic nerve from each eye cross each other, an X-shaped feature. Beneath this chiasma there are areas (the suprachiasmatic nucleus) that pick up fluctuations in lighting related to the day-night cycle. The cross is not complete, but functional: only light that is processed on the left side of the visual field, which hits the right side of the retina, is projected to the left side of the thalamus and vice versa ➙ things to your left is processed on the right side of the brain In the PVC (primary visual cortex) there are processors that are responsible for what draws our bottom-up attention: General pattern of recognition Depth and distance (stereotopic vision) Contrast Color Brightness Complex movement Determination of absolute position of the object Our brain is an interpreter and a forecaster When our eyes are hit by stimuli, information goes through the optical nerve ➙ the part that we see with the left eye goes to the right part of the brain and vice versa. In the left part of the brain information pass through the thalamus and goes to the occipital lobe. Here we have the primary visual cortex in which information from the two eyes is put together and here there are processors that work on a general recognition. It is important to remember that our brain works in the meanwhile because it needs to help us to solve the problem of the blind spot (the part we do not see). Sometimes the brain corrects things: our brain is an interpreter and it is a forecaster and here we have an example of it. Our brain let us see a wide triangle here, in reality in here we have three parts of circles and segments, but they are put in a position that they make us think it is a triangle. The Gestalt theories work on this. In advertising, people are working with this. The representation of the outer world on the inner “brain-scape” is very specific ➙ the visual system is retinotopic ➙ there is a topographical mapping between the “real world” and the way the brain processes this information. VISION DECODING 1) Primary visual cortex 2) Secondary visual areas (memory) 3) It passes its conclusions to the temporal and parietal lobes à from visual sensation to visual cognition à the information that have been processed independently until this point, are now sending their specialized information to the same region of the brain The Two-Streams Hypothesis (Milner, 2008 & 2006; Goodale, 1992) This passage is done according to Milner and Goodale through two streams: The ventral stream ➙ the what pathway, it is devoted to  processing object identity and representation, brand and product identity ➙ we recognized things and products. It is connected to memory. Connected to the inferior temporal lobe The dorsal stream ➙ the where/how pathway, it is devoted to orienting ourselves in the world, objects location, product position. Connected to the parietal lobe This is important especially with brands and products ➙ what we perceive it to be, how we use it and where it is. Bridging this gap from knowing what to knowing how, can often prove crucial to whether consumers find the product interesting and are interested into buying it. VISUAL COGNITION It is what the Gestaltian psychologists call ‘the whole’. Visual cognition is a key function for human beings and consumers To give meaning to what we see To recognize objects, products, brands Missing visual cognition ➙ visual agnosia ➙ if everything works till the occipital lobe, but we can’t have visual cognition we can’t understand what products are SENSORIAL CONVERGENCE IN THE TEMPORAL CORTEX The temporal cortex is mainly related to gathering sensorial information and putting them together. The brain interprets