Foundations of Psychology PDF

1402-Foundations of Psychology (GenEle-S3-CC-04-SOL) 020924.pdf - September 2, 2024 FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY [FOR LIMITED CIRCULATION] Editorial Board Prof. N.K. Chadha, Dr. Vandana Gambir Con...

1402-Foundations of Psychology (GenEle-S3-CC-04-SOL) 020924.pdf - September 2, 2024 FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY [FOR LIMITED CIRCULATION] Editorial Board Prof. N.K. Chadha, Dr. Vandana Gambir Content Writers Dr. Varsha Singh, Ms. Dhritismita Bora, Dr. Nisha Chaudhary, Dr. Shatarupa Chakraborty Academic Coordinator Mr. Deekshant Awasthi Department of Distance and Continuing Education E-mail: [email protected] [email protected] Published by: Department of Distance and Continuing Education Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007 Printed by: School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY Reviewers Disclaimer Dr. Nupur Gosain, Ms. Vidyut Singh Corrections/Modifications/Suggestions proposed by Statutory Body, DU/ Stakeholder/s in the Self Learning Material (SLM) will be incorporated in the next edition. However, these corrections/modifications/suggestions will be uploaded on the website https://sol.du.ac.in. Any feedback or suggestions may be sent at the email- [email protected] Printed at: Taxmann Publications Pvt. Ltd., 21/35, West Punjabi Bagh, New Delhi - 110026 (2,000 Copies, 2024) Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi  Syllabus Foundations of Psychology Syllabus Mapping Unit - I: What is Psychology Lesson 1: Introduction to Psychology as a science; Major schools of Psychology; Evolution of Psy- Psychology chology in India; Subfields and Applications of Psychology (Pages 3–23) Unit - II: Mind as Information Processer Lesson 2: Mind as Infor- Bottom-up and Top-down processing, Perceptual organizational processes, mation Processor Acquiring Information: Learning by Association, Social Cognitive Learning, (Pages 27–65) Encoding and Retrieval in Memory: Information Processing model; Why we forget? Mnemonics Unit - III: Self and Personality Lesson 3: Self and Nature and Perspectives (Trait and Type, Jungian Theory of Psychoanalysis, Personality Roger’s Self Theory), Measures of Personality: Inventories and Projective (Pages 69–103) techniques, Culture and Personality Unit - IV: Intelligence and Creativity Lesson 4: Intelligence Nature and Perspectives: Psychometric approach (Spearman’s ‘g’ factor and Creativity theory), Cognitive perspective (Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence; Triar- (Pages 107–136) chic Theory of Intelligence), Multiple Intelligences, Managing emotions intelligently, Nature of Creativity Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Syllebus.indd 1 29-Aug-24 7:12:01 PM GE_Foundation of Psychology_Syllebus.indd 2 29-Aug-24 7:12:01 PM  Contents PAGE UNIT-I Lesson 1: Introduction to Psychology3–23 UNIT-II Lesson 2: Mind as Information Processor27–65 UNIT-III Lesson 3: Self and Personality69–103 UNIT-IV Lesson 4: Intelligence and Creativity107–136 PAGE i Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_TOC.indd 1 30-Aug-24 3:11:21 PM GE_Foundation of Psychology_TOC.indd 2 29-Aug-24 7:13:49 PM  UNIT - I PAGE 1 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 1 29-Aug-24 7:15:04 PM GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 2 29-Aug-24 7:15:04 PM  L E S S O N 1 Introduction to Psychology Dr. Varsha Singh Assistant Professor Department of Psychology Aryabhatta College University of Delhi Email-Id: [email protected] STRUCTURE 1.1 Learning Objectives 1.2 Introduction 1.3 Definition of Psychology 1.4 Psychology as a Science 1.5 Goals of Psychology 1.6 Major Schools and Perspectives in Psychology 1.7 Evolution of Psychology in India: Roots and Perspective 1.8 Subfields and Applications of Psychology 1.9 Summary 1.10 Glossary 1.11 Answers to In-Text Questions 1.12 Self-Assessment Questions 1.13 References 1.14 Suggested Readings 1.1 Learning Objectives ‹ ‹Develop an understanding of psychology as a science and its applications. ‹ ‹Learn about various perspectives in psychology related to human nature. PAGE 3 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 3 29-Aug-24 7:15:05 PM  FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY Notes 1.2 Introduction Frequently, we are curious to understand the rationale behind someone’s thoughts and actions. Questions arise about human behaviour, such as why people think in certain ways, and why we experience anger over certain matters. These inquiries delve into the realm of psychology. The study and field of psychology offer a captivating exploration into the human mind and behaviour. Psychologists are concerned with understanding the nature, origins, and consequences of our emotional states, as well as the factors that influence them. The influence of culture, parents, and media on human behaviour and thoughts also falls within the scope of psychology. This chapter will focus on the nature and perspectives of psychology on human nature. It will elaborate on its status as a science and discuss about various subfields and its applications. 1.3 Definition of Psychology The term ‘psychology’ has its roots in two Greek words, ‘psyche’ meaning ‘spirit’ or ‘soul’, and ‘logos’ meaning ‘discourse’ or ‘study’. In earlier times, it was regarded as a field that focused on the study of the soul. Psychology is currently defined as the scientific study of mental pro- cesses, experiences, and behaviours. As a discipline, psychology strives to identify complexities, patterns, and regulations in behaviour, while also developing principles and theories to explain it. Let us understand the meaning of this definition in detail. Psychology Studies Mental Processes: Mental processes encompass various internal cognitive faculties, including thinking, remembering, perceiving, and learning. These processes can be inferred through the observation of an individual’s verbal behaviour, reactions, and non-verbal cues. Mental processes are characterized by their dual nature, being both subjective and objective. They are subjective in the sense that they pertain to internal experiences and cognitive functions within the individual’s mind. However, they are also objective as they are closely tied to the functioning of the brain and neural processes, which interact with external stimuli such as objects, events, and other individuals in the external world. Psychology Studies Behaviours: Behaviour refers to an individual’s observable reactions and actions towards the external world. Psychology 4 PAGE Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 4 29-Aug-24 7:15:05 PM  Introduction to Psychology encompasses the study of all forms of behavior, ranging from simple Notes reflexes like a knee-jerk to complex processes such as decision-making and communication. Behaviours can vary in terms of duration, com- plexity, overt (observable) or covert (hidden), and verbal or non-verbal expression. Psychology recognizes that understanding behaviour requires considering various levels of analysis. This includes studying behaviour within groups, crowds, communities, and organizations. Different social contexts influence behaviour, and psychologists examine how behaviour manifests differently based on the specific circumstances. For example, expressing anger in front of parents may differ from displaying anger in front of teachers due to the unique dynamics and expectations in each context. Psychology Studies Experiences: Experiences are subjective manifesta- tions of how the outer world influences an individual. They are deeply rooted in the consciousness of the person undergoing them. Psychology recognizes the significance of personal experiences, including dreams, states of altered consciousness (such as those induced by drugs or medi- tation), and reflections on everyday life. These experiences hold valuable insights and are of interest to psychologists. Psychology delves into the study of personal experiences, acknowledging that they provide valu- able information about the inner workings of the mind and the impact of external stimuli. Dreams, for example, are a rich source of personal experiences during sleep. Altered states of consciousness resulting from drug use or meditation offer unique opportunities to explore the effects on perception, cognition, and emotions. 1.4 Psychology as a Science The definition itself clears that despite having its roots in philosophy, psychology is a science. Science is not defined by its subject matter but as a method of inquiry. Science involves the systematic acquisition and organization of knowledge, and psychology qualifies as a science because it adheres to the scientific method in studying its subject mat- ter. Psychology while studying behaviour, thoughts and action follows systematic observation, analysis and interpretation. The data is collected in an objective and standardised fashion and the theories thus established are based on this empirical data. The data and theories obtained through PAGE 5 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 5 29-Aug-24 7:15:05 PM  FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY Notes this process are public, making it accessible, replicable and verifiable by anyone who adheres to the same method. In practical terms, psychology has evolved into a hybrid science that explores the interconnectedness of physical, psychological, and social aspects of reality. It has emerged from the combined influences of various disciplines, making psychology both a natural science and a social science. Psychology as Natural Science: As natural science, psychology recognizes that human beings are part of the natural world. It acknowledges the im- portance of understanding the physical aspects of the environment and their influence on individuals. Psychology incorporates concepts from biology and physics to gain insight into the functioning of the human brain and its mechanisms. It also falls under the life sciences category as it investigates processes related to the initiation of life and child development. Psychology as Social Science: Psychology is social science because human beings not only inhabit the natural world but also live in a con- structed, man-made world. The socio-cultural context, as well as people’s participation in their culture, greatly impact psychology. All the factors influenced by human society affect the psyche, making it essential to understand social systems and their members. The formation of groups, such as families and peers, and the commitment to these groups require an understanding of social dynamics. Psychologists often utilize the S-O-R (Stimulus-Organism-Response) principle to conceptualize and relate their studies. The organism (individual) serves as an intervening variable that operates between the stimulus present and the response evoked. Basic and Applied Research Sciences in Psychology ‹ ‹Basic research is driven by the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake, seeking to understand phenomena without a specific practical objective. In the field of psychology, most basic research focuses on investigating how and why people behave, think, and experience emotions. This type of research can be conducted in laboratory settings or real-world environments, involving human participants or other species. Psychologists studying non-human species may aim to uncover principles that can contribute to our understanding of human behaviour, although some researchers study animal behaviour purely for its own intrinsic value. 6 PAGE Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 6 29-Aug-24 7:15:05 PM  Introduction to Psychology ‹ ‹Applied research, on the other hand, aims to solve specific and Notes practical problems by utilizing scientific knowledge. Applied research in psychology involves using the foundational scientific knowledge gained from basic research to design, implement, and evaluate intervention programs. Psychologists utilize their understanding of human behaviour to develop practical solutions to specific problems and assess the effectiveness of these interventions. Overall, both basic and applied research play essential roles in psychol- ogy, with basic research contributing to the fundamental understanding of human behaviour and applied research employing this knowledge to address real-world issues. In order to have a comprehensive understanding of functioning of human within the social realms, psychology draws its information from various other fields too. Psychology as Interdisciplinary Science: Whether our behaviour is de- termined by our biology or the psycho-social influences - gave birth to an interesting debate of nature versus nurture. The nature view argues that individuals are born with inherent abilities and a reservoir of knowledge that allows them to understand the world. On the other hand, the nurture view posits that knowledge and skills are acquired through experiences and interactions with the environment. Supporters of the nature view, such as Descartes, believe that humans are born with certain inherent traits and abilities. Advocates of the nurture view, like Locke, propose that individuals are born as “blank slates” (tabula rasa) and that knowledge and understanding are acquired through experience, with the environment playing a significant role in shaping human development. While the debate is still ongoing, the prevailing belief is that biological processes impact individuals, but experiences and environmental influences also leave a significant imprint. The current focus lies in understanding how nature and nurture interact and combine to influence the human psyche. It is widely acknowledged that both nature and nurture play crucial roles, and the interplay between them is a key area of interest in contemporary psy- chology. As a result, the field of psychology in its studies expands itself from medicine, biological sciences to social sciences as well. In order to develop comprehensive and a detailed understanding of human behaviour and related aspects it draws and extends itself to various other fields such as anthropology, computer-sciences, economies, sociology, management sciences etc. making psychology essentially an interdisciplinary science. PAGE 7 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 7 29-Aug-24 7:15:05 PM  FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY Notes We as human beings are complex beings living in complex social world and to understand the why and how of behaviour, psychologists integrate information from various avenues – biological, psychological and envi- ronmental. This is known as level of analysis framework where various caused of behaviours are examined. At biological level – hereditary influences, brain processes, body functioning are paid emphasis on; at psychological level – the emotions, motives and feelings are analysed and at environmental level – the present and past physical, social, historical and cultural contexts, which we are part of, are investigated. 1.5 Goals of Psychology The goals of psychology revolve around understanding and explaining human behaviour, thoughts, and beliefs. There are five main goals of psychology: Figure 1.1: Goals of Psychology 1. Description: This goal involves observing and documenting behaviour in detail. It encompasses studying what is happening, where it is happening, to whom it is happening, and under what circumstances. By carefully describing behaviour, psychologists gain a comprehensive understanding of its various aspects. For example: My friend is upset; the description of this behaviour would include - She’s not smiling, she’s not talking much, she’s not eating properly and she’s quite in college most of the time. 2. Explanation: The goal of explanation is to uncover the reasons behind specific behaviours. It involves delving into the underlying factors and mechanisms that contribute to the observed behaviour. Through explanations, psychologists develop theories that provide insights 8 PAGE Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 8 29-Aug-24 7:15:05 PM  Introduction to Psychology into the observed phenomena. For example: You find out that your Notes friend is upset because she feels lonely at home; her mother and father both left country for business and will only comeback after a year. And she has to live with her cousins whom she does not like. 3. Prediction: Prediction focuses on determining what is likely to happen in the future based on current observations and understanding. By identifying patterns and trends in behavior, psychologists can make informed predictions about future outcomes and consequences. For example: If my friend continues to be so upset all the time she might fail exams, might become depressed etc. 4. Control: The goal of control is to intervene and modify behavior in order to bring about desirable changes or maintain positive states. It involves implementing strategies and techniques to promote healthy functioning, improve circumstances, and enhance the overall quality of life. For example- my friend should visit a counsellor, or be assertive and should talk to her parents etc. 5. Application: The goal of application involves utilizing psychological knowledge and principles in real-life situations for practical purposes. This includes using psychological insights to develop skills, enhance performance, and address various challenges individuals may face. Applying psychological therapies to manage anger or improve mental well-being is an example of the application of psychological knowledge. IN-TEXT QUESTIONS 1. Psychology as a science is defined by its _______. (a) Subject matter (b) Method of inquiry (c) Goals of psychology 2. O stands for _______ in S-O-R principle of psychology. (a) Objective (b) Organism (c) Organisation PAGE 9 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 9 29-Aug-24 7:15:05 PM  FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY Notes 3. Stress management as a technique is an example of _______ goal of Psychology. (a) Description (b) Control (c) Application 1.6 Major Schools and Perspectives in Psychology It was in the 19th century that psychology established itself as an inde- pendent discipline, when William Wundt established first psychological laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany in 1879. Early develop- ment within the field, focused on developing a system in which contents, methods and concerns as the focus of psychology (subject matter) were defined within the framework of a set of assumptions. These efforts were called schools of thought, which paved way for the establishment of psy- chology as an independent field and recently are labelled as perspectives on behaviour. These perspectives guide us about human nature and their issues; let’s discuss them briefly: Structuralism: This school of thought was developed by Wundt and Tichener. Wundt believed that mental processes should be studied with objective techniques. He used introspection to study mental processes, it refers to observing and recording the nature of one’s own perception, thoughts and feelings. Wundt interested in analyzing human conscious- ness and its elements used introspection to study mental structure. This school emphasized on mental structures. Extending this view Tichener proposed psychology should study consciousness which consists of sen- sation, images and affective states. He emphasized the ‘what’ of mental contents. According to this view, human mental experiences were com- binations of simpler elements. This school was criticized for reducing complex experience to basic sensations and for relying on unobservable inner processes and unverifiable verbal reports. Functionalism: This school of thought was developed by John Dewey and William James. Its main assumption was that human mind continuously adapts to environmental demands and that psychology should study the functions of consciousness rather than its structure. Dewey emphasized 10 PAGE Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 10 29-Aug-24 7:15:05 PM  Introduction to Psychology that an organism’s practical goal is to adapt to its environment and func- Notes tion effectively. William James published book Principles of Psychology in 1890 which considered consciousness as the core of psychology. He considered it as an ongoing stream which interacts with the environment continuously. For him the functions of mental structures were important to study not the contents. Gestalt: This school was founded by Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka. This school originated in the study of illusion and movement, The Gestalt principles state that the whole is different from the sum of its parts. That is our experiences carry with them the quality of wholeness. According to Wertheimer, psychological processes like perceiving and sensing cannot be divided into any smaller parts and yet be understood. For example: If I break a table into its various parts such as legs, desk and drawer it will no longer be a table, it will only be various parts of a table until all of them are placed perfectly to form a table, similarly perception as a psychological concept can only be un- derstood as a whole, entire event. Hence, the familiar slogan, “The whole is greater than the sum of its parts.” Wertheimer and others believed that people naturally seek out patterns (“wholes”) in the sensory information available to them. Wertheimer and others worked tirelessly to research sensation and perception from this novel Gestalt psychological viewpoint. This school focused on the study of conscious experience and gave laws of perceptual organization insightful learning and productive thinking. Kurt Lewin of this school later developed field theory. Psychodynamic Approach: This perspective was developed by a very well-known psychologist Sigmund Freud. Freud’s observations of patients experiencing physical symptoms without apparent physical causes led him to propose that unconscious processes play a crucial role in behaviour. The psychodynamic perspective focuses on exploring the causes of be- haviour within the inner workings of the personality, with an emphasis on unconscious processes. Freud developed the technique of free asso- ciation, where patients would freely talk about whatever came to their minds during therapy sessions. Through this technique, Freud observed that patients often spoke about childhood traumas, which he believed had a significant impact on their symptoms. He proposed that the unconscious mind influences our thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. Freud introduced the concept of the id, ego, and superego as intrapsychic forces that interact PAGE 11 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 11 29-Aug-24 7:15:05 PM  FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY Notes to shape our behaviour. The id seeks immediate gratification and functions on the pleasure principle. The ego acts as a mediator between the id and the superego, considering the reality principle. The superego represents moral principles and is concerned with moral beliefs and values. Freud also proposed the theory of psychosexual development, suggesting that individual’s progress through stages where fixation or arrest can impact their personality development. Additionally, he discussed defence mechanisms, which are psychological techniques that help us cope with anxiety and painful experiences. Repression, one of the primary defence mechanisms, involves keeping unacceptable impulses, feelings, and mem- ories in the unconscious. While Freud’s emphasis on childhood sexuality and some aspects of his theories received criticism, his work stimulated research in various areas of psychology, such as dreams, memory, ag- gression, and mental disorders. Other psychologists, including Erik Erikson, Carl Jung, Karen Horney, and Alfred Adler, developed their own theories building upon Freud’s ideas. They are often referred to as Neo-Freudians, as they incorporat- ed and expanded upon Freud’s concepts while incorporating additional perspectives. Overall, Freud’s contributions to psychology had a profound impact on the study and treatment of psychological disorders, broadening the scope of psychological inquiry and paving the way for subsequent developments in the field. Behaviourism: The behavioural perspective focuses on the role of the external environment in governing our actions. According to this viewpoint, our behaviour is determined by both the habits we have learned from past experiences and the stimuli present in our immediate surroundings. This school of psychology was pioneered by John B. Watson, who argued that the primary focus of psychology should be on observable behaviour rather than unobservable inner mental processes. Watson also believed that human beings are shaped by their learning experiences. Early proponents of behaviourism conducted research to uncover the principles governing human learning. Pavlov’s experiments with dogs demonstrated how the environment influences behaviour through the association of events. Thorndike introduced the law of effect, which emphasized that responses followed by satisfying outcomes are more likely to be repeated. Skinner, 12 PAGE Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 12 29-Aug-24 7:15:05 PM  Introduction to Psychology through his studies with rats and pigeons, discovered that behaviour is Notes influenced by the rewarding or punishing consequences it produces. Based on these laws of learning and behaviour, behaviourists developed an in- fluential technique called behaviour modification, which aims to reduce problematic behaviour and enhance positive behaviour by manipulating its consequences. A more recent development within behaviourism is cognitive behaviourism, which suggests that learning experiences and environmental factors influence our thoughts and expectations, which in turn affect our behaviour. Cognitive: The cognitive perspective focuses on understanding the nature of the mind and how mental processes influence behaviour. According to this perspective, humans are viewed as information processors whose actions are guided by thoughts. This viewpoint emerged as a result of influences from World War II and advancements in computer technology, which prompted psychologists to study information processing, memory, and attention. Researchers began conceptualizing the mind as a system that processes, stores, and retrieves information. Noam Chomsky’s research on language development argued that humans have innate biological mechanisms that enable them to acquire language, and Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development emphasized that our cognitive abilities become more sophisticated as we mature. These ideas laid the foundation for the establishment of the cognitive perspective. Present-day cognitive psychologists investigate processes such as reason- ing, decision-making, problem-solving, perception, mental imagery, and language production and comprehension. They employ technologically advanced techniques such as electrical recording and brain imaging to examine brain activity while individuals engage in mental tasks. Humanistic-Existential: This perspective emphasized upon the free-will, personal growth and the attempt to find meaning in one’s existence. This perspective denied view of human nature and behaviour as just reac- tions to the stimuli and as a result of intrapsychic unconscious forces. Humanistic theorists proposed that each of us has an inborn force toward self-actualization, the reaching of one’s individual potential. In a sup- portive context, human development of personality emerges as healthy and positive. In contrast, misery and pathology occur when environments frustrate our innate tendency toward self-actualization. Humanists placed PAGE 13 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 13 29-Aug-24 7:15:05 PM  FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY Notes a strong emphasis on the value of individual responsibility, personality development, and strong sense of self-worth. They insisted that the mean- ing of our existence resides squarely in our own hands. This perspective believes that each one of us has the capacity to exercise freedom, rise above our environmental & social constraints, and give our life a mean- ing and direction. Socio-cultural Perspective: Humans are essentially social creatures; socio-cultural perspective examines how the social environment and cultural socialization influence our behaviour, thoughts, and feelings. A big group of people’s enduring values, beliefs, habits, and customs are referred to as a culture and are passed down from one generation to the next. All cultural groups develop their own social norms, that specify what behaviour is acceptable and expected by its members. Norms exist for all social behaviours, such as how to dress, respond to people of higher status, or act as a woman or man. Through the process of socialization each generation internalizes and adopts its cultural values and norms. Culture plays an important role in shaping us and our identity. Psychologists have long recognized culture’s impact in shaping who we are. As time progressed psychologists paid more interest and studied diverse ethnic and cultural groups. This perspective aims at exploring various cultural similarities and differences among people. One widely studied difference is individualism versus collectivism. Most of the western and developed countries promote individualism. Individualism emphasis on personal goals and self-identity based primarily on one’s own attributes and achievements. In contrast, many cultures in Asia, Southern-America and Africa promote collectivism, in which individual goals are subordinated to those of the group and personal identity is defined largely by the bonds that keep the extended family and social groups close. For example, in the West, as children grow up to be adolescents they are expected to move out of the family home, be independent and establish their identity, career apart from family and build their own house and start their family. On the other hand, in India, the joint family system is promoted where family and extended family members all live together and are interdependent on each other. In fact, moving out of the family to establish oneself apart from family is not appreciated and considered as selfish. 14 PAGE Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 14 29-Aug-24 7:15:05 PM  Introduction to Psychology Biological Perspective: It examines how brain processes and other bodi- Notes ly functions regulate behaviour. What are the specific areas in the brain that enable us to feel happy, sad, loved or fearful? How are we able to read, memorise and analyse? Biological perspective aims at answering all these and many such questions related to human mind and behaviour. Research from behavioural neuroscience has been able to show that spe- cific brain regions are responsible for specific functioning. For example, role of limbic system and hippocampus has been implicated in emotions and memory. Discovery of neurotransmitters also helped in understanding their role in normal behaviour and mental disorders. Computer-based brain-imaging techniques and devices today can show us by recording brain waves activity in specific brain areas as people experience emotions, perceive stimuli, and perform tasks. Biological perspective also considers the in- fluence of genetic factors on our behaviour. Studies on Identical twins and fraternal twins also indicate and show the similarity in behaviour patterns and thought processes of twins even after being reared in different environments. Evolutionary psychologists hailing biological basis of our behaviour apply Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection to human behaviour and emphasis that through natural selection, human mental abilities and behavioural tendencies evolved along with a changing body. Psychological abilities like thought, language, memory and capabilities to learn and solve problems became important for survival of our ancestors as they were adapting to novel ways of living. Within any generation, genetically based variations in brain structure and functioning occur among individuals. Ancestors who possessed brain characteristics that enhanced their adaptive mental abilities had a higher probability of survival and reproductive success. Consequently, natural selection played a significant role in driving the development of the brain by favouring traits that en- abled individuals to better adapt to new environmental demands. At the same time, the growth and development of the brain itself played a crucial role in shaping and influencing the further advancement of human behaviour. In this way, there was a reciprocal relationship be- tween adaptations to the environment and the ongoing development of the brain, which in turn influenced the complexity and sophistication of human behaviour. PAGE 15 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 15 29-Aug-24 7:15:05 PM  FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY Notes Integrating Perspectives: As seen through our discussion above, various perspectives on human nature emphasise different focus points. One looks at structure, other at functions; one pays more emphasis to unknown un- conscious forces, other at culture, contexts and environment; one adheres to stimulus-response relationship and other at biological processes and information processing. However, it is important to understand that in order to understand the issues of human nature all of them are equally relevant and should be combined for a comprehensive view and solu- tion of human nature-related issues. For example, Kavita going through Depression could be a result of her unresolved childhood traumas and her inability to find meaning in her life. Thus, intervention in her case would focus both on the unconscious childhood issues and development of meaning in life. Furthermore, integration of these perspectives is just like the levels of analysis discussed before in the chapter, where any issue is looked at from a vantage point of biological, psychological and social environmental factors. 1.7 Evolution of Psychology in India: Roots and Perspective The quest to understand the human mind and its functions has been a prominent aspect of Indian philosophical traditions since ancient times. These traditions offer profound insights into mental states and activities based on extensive experiential knowledge. The ultimate goal of Indian thought was self-realization and alleviation of suffering. Central to most Indian accounts was the cultivation of inner discipline to regulate the processes of the self and foster harmony among mind, body, and spirit. Indian thought systems exhibit a diverse range of orientations. Schools of thought such as Vedanta, Mimansa, Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Charvak, Buddhism, Jainism, and Ayurveda, along with their various sub-schools, present a wide spectrum of perspectives on the human condition, the goals of life, the nature of cognitive and affective processes, and mental health. These ideas draw upon rich textual traditions and cultural practices. The Vedic and Upanishadic knowledge emphasizes human identity as a manifestation of an impersonal and pervasive reality. It highlights the pursuit of spiritual transcendence, which connects the individual with the greater totality. Individual growth is attained by seeking unity with 16 PAGE Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 16 29-Aug-24 7:15:06 PM  Introduction to Psychology this greater reality or consciousness. It posits that one’s existence is rel- Notes ative to the totality, transcending limited bodily identity. Concepts such as sat-chit-ananda (being-consciousness-bliss) and aham brahmasmi (I am the divine) are advocated. Some key features of this view include a holistic-organic worldview, coherence and order across diverse life forms, a socially embedded relational understanding of the person, nonlinear growth in life, contextualized relationships, a shared notion of control, and a code cantered around Dharma (duty). According to these ancient accounts, psychology encompasses the study of the individual (Jiva), which is considered transpersonal and influenced by trans-cognitive states. Consciousness in a person is distinct from the material world, the brain, and the mind. The mind serves as the interface between consciousness and brain processes. The material engagements of the external world corrupt this consciousness, leading to selfish thoughts and actions. As consciousness becomes corrupted, the ego emerges, giving rise to insecurities, anxiety, ignorance, attachment, and suffering. This ego-driven state creates existential crises and distracts individuals from the path to liberation. Therefore, deconditioning and transformative pro- cesses are necessary to restore higher states of consciousness, which can facilitate liberation (chitta-vritti-Nirodha). Various forms of Yoga, such as Jnana (knowledge), Bhakti (devotion), and Karma (action), are employed to suit individuals with different dispositions on the journey to liberation. Psychology as a discipline developed at the Master’s level in Calcutta University in 1916, with Dr. N.N. Sengupta as the first faculty member. Dr. Sengupta had received training under Hugo Munsterberg, which in- fluenced much of the early research conducted at Calcutta University, drawing from the works of Wilhelm Wundt, Hermann Ebbinghaus, and others. The first doctorate in psychology was awarded to Girindra Shek- har Bose in 1922 at Calcutta University for his work on repression. The Indian Psychological Association was established in 1925, and the Indian Journal of Psychology began publication in 1926. Bose also founded the Indian Psychoanalytical Society, affiliated with the International Psycho- analytic Association, in 1922. He started teaching at Calcutta University in 1917 and chaired the department from 1929 to 1940. The association also started its journal, Samiksha, in 1947. PAGE 17 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 17 29-Aug-24 7:15:06 PM  FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY Notes In 1938, the Department of Experimental Psychology at Calcutta Univer- sity was renamed the Department of Psychology, and in 1943, a separate section for Applied Psychology was added. Subsequent developments in the discipline focused on studying prejudice, social influence, poverty and deprivation, education, environment, health, gender, and values. During the 1950s and 1960s, many psychologists from India received their training from renowned universities abroad and assumed leadership roles in various academic institutions of India. Psychology teaching programs separated from philosophy departments in the 1960s and established their own independent departments. The sociocultural context received greater attention, and there was a proliferation of psychology teaching, research, and application. Cultural appropriateness, well-being, and indigenization became prominent concerns in the field. Psychology in India engaged with broader theoretical frameworks and adopted innovative methodologies to explore its untapped potential. The discipline began to pay more attention to local realities while addressing global concerns. IN-TEXT QUESTIONS 4. “Whole is more than some of its part” this assertion was given by _________ school of psychology. (a) Functionalism (b) Structuralism (c) Gestalt 5. Psychology was taught as a discipline in India for the first time at __________. (a) Banaras Hindu University (b) Calcutta University (c) University of Delhi 6. Charles Darwin’s theory is useful in __________ perspective of Psychology. (a) Biological (b) Cultural (c) Humanistic-Existential 18 PAGE Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 18 29-Aug-24 7:15:06 PM  Introduction to Psychology Notes 1.8 Subfields and Applications of Psychology Psychology and its principles can be applied to a variety of areas and fields. The knowledge about human nature and development aids in varied fields. Psychology based on its principles of child development helps in the development of appropriate curriculum, teaching methods and identification of children with special needs; and aids in the field of education. Within organizational set-up the theories of leadership, conflict management, communication and motivation are applied for effective functioning of humans as a resource. Psychology proves to be quite useful in the development of self. As one reads and learns about various concepts related to human, nature and behaviour, one is able to acknowledge, accept and improve oneself. Study of abnormal behaviour and health helps in the development interventions, therapies and counselling strategies for optimal well-being and benefits the field of medicine and healthcare. Following is a brief description of various subfields of psychology where its numerous theories are applied and used: ‹ ‹Social Psychology: This field investigates human social behaviour, including attitudes, conformity, persuasion, prejudice, friendship, aggression, and helping. It focuses on how individuals think about and interact with others, and how they are influenced by others. Social psychologists study how perceptions of others affect attitudes and behaviour. ‹ ‹Forensic Psychology: It field investigates issues related to crime, its prevention, rehabilitation programs, courtroom dynamics, and selection for police candidates. Forensic psychologists work within the judicial system, assessing the emotional and psychological state of individuals involved in legal proceedings, evaluating rehabilitation programs, examining eyewitness testimony and evidence, assisting with jury selection, and providing police training. ‹ ‹Industrial/Organizational Psychology: It investigates behaviour in work settings, including employee selection and recruitment, performance appraisal, work motivation, and leadership. The application of psychology to industry and organizations began with the use of intelligence and aptitude tests for employee selection and recruitment. PAGE 19 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 19 29-Aug-24 7:15:06 PM  FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY Notes ‹ ‹Abnormal Psychology: This field seeks to describe, explain, predict, and control behaviours that are considered strange or unusual. It focuses on the classification, etiology, assessment, treatment, and prevention of mental disorders. ‹ ‹Clinicaland Counselling Psychology: Clinical psychology involves the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders. Clinical psychologists investigate the causes of anomalies in disturbed individuals. Counselling psychology helps individuals with mild social and emotional adjustment difficulties. In counselling, individuals are assisted in understanding and addressing their issues collaboratively. ‹ ‹Positive Psychology: This field takes an optimistic view of human life and abilities. It explores the use of positive emotions, the development of virtues and strengths, and the creation of happiness and well-being for individuals. ‹ ‹Cross-cultural Psychology: This is a scientific field that explores human behavior and mental processes, specifically focusing on examining the similarities and differences in psychological functioning among diverse ethnic groups. Its primary objective is to broaden the scope of psychology, transforming it into a universal discipline capable of comprehending and explaining psychological phenomena within a global context. By studying how cultural factors influence human behavior, cross-cultural psychology aims to gain a comprehensive understanding of the complexities of human nature across different societies and cultural backgrounds. ‹ ‹Educational Psychology: This is focused on the scientific study of human learning. It deals with teaching and learning processes and relies on quantitative methods, including testing and measurement, to enhance educational activities and facilitate learning in various educational settings throughout life. ‹ ‹Environmental Psychology: This field focuses on the interplay between individuals and their surroundings. It is committed to developing a discipline that addresses environmental problems and promotes individual well-being within society. 20 PAGE Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 20 29-Aug-24 7:15:06 PM  Introduction to Psychology ‹ ‹Health Psychology: It studies the relationship between psychological Notes factors and physical ailments. Health psychology aims to understand how psychological, behavioural, and cultural factors contribute to physical health and illness. Health psychologists work directly with patients or in public health programs to improve health outcomes. ‹ ‹Developmental Psychology: It examines the systematic continuities and changes in individuals over the course of life. Developmental psychology investigates how people grow and change from conception through death, including topics such as prenatal development, influences on development (peers, family, media), developmental delays, and various stages of life. 1.9 Summary In this chapter we learnt about Psychology as a fascinating field that seeks to understand the reasons behind human thoughts and actions. It is defined as the scientific study of mental processes, experiences, and behaviours. Psychology is considered a science because it adheres to the scientific meth- od in its study of behaviour, thoughts, and actions. Psychology is a hybrid science that explores the interconnectedness of physical, psychological, and social aspects of reality, making it both a natural and social science. The goals of psychology encompass understanding, explaining, predicting, controlling, and applying knowledge about human behaviour. The chapter also discussed about various perspectives in the field of psychology and the evolution of psychology in India. Various applications of psychology are also discussed in the areas of health, education, work and self-development. 1.10 Glossary ‹ ‹Behaviour: Refers to an individual’s observable reactions and actions towards the external world. ‹ ‹Experiences: Refer to subjective manifestations of how the outer world influences an individual. ‹ ‹Mental Processes: Encompass various internal cognitive faculties, including thinking, remembering, perceiving, and learning. PAGE 21 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 21 29-Aug-24 7:15:06 PM  FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY Notes ‹ ‹Psychology: Defined as the scientific study of mental processes, experiences, and behaviours. ‹ ‹S-O-R (Stimulus-Organism-Response): The organism (individual) serves as an intervening variable that operates between the stimulus present and the response evoked. 1.11 Answers to In-Text Questions 1. (b) Method of inquiry 2. (b) Organism 3. (c) Application 4. (c) Gestalt 5. (b) Calcutta University 6. (a) Biological 1.12 Self-Assessment Questions 1. Why is psychology a science? 2. Design research questions based on various goals of psychology. 3. Differentiate between the biological and psychodynamic approaches of human behaviour. 4. Why are social, historical and cultural contexts important to understand human behaviour? 5. How was psychology established as a discipline in India? 6. Differentiate between abnormal, clinical and counselling, health and educational psychology. 7. How do you think concepts of psychology can be applied in everyday life? 1.13 References ‹ ‹Baron, R. A., & Misra, G. (2014). Psychology (Indian Subcontinent Edition). Pearson Education Ltd. 22 PAGE Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 22 29-Aug-24 7:15:06 PM  Introduction to Psychology Notes ‹ ‹Ciccarelli,S. K., & Meyer, G. E. (2008). Psychology (South Asian Edition). New Delhi: Pearson. ‹ ‹Feldman. S. R. (2009). Essentials of understanding psychology (7th edition). New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill. ‹ ‹Passer, M. W., Smith, R. E., Holt, N., & Bremner, A. (2008). Psychology: The Science of Mind and Behaviour. McGraw Hill Education, UK. ‹ ‹Zimbardo, P. C., & Weber, A. L. (1997). Psychology, New York: Harper Collins College Publishers. 1.14 Suggested Readings ‹ ‹Galotti, K. M. (2014). Cognitive Psychology in and out of the Laboratory (5th edition). New Delhi: Sage. ‹ ‹Singh, K. (2022). There isn’t only cultural blindness in psychology; psychology is culture blind. In Robert W. Hood, Jr. & Sariya Cheruvallil-Contractor (Eds.). Research in the social scientific study of religion, volume 32 (pp. 399-426). Boston: Brill. PAGE 23 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 23 29-Aug-24 7:15:06 PM GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 24 29-Aug-24 7:15:06 PM  UNIT - II PAGE 25 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 25 29-Aug-24 7:15:06 PM GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 26 29-Aug-24 7:15:06 PM  L E S S O N 2 Mind as Information Processor Ms. Dhritismita Bora Research Scholar Gauhati University Email-Id: [email protected] STRUCTURE 2.1 Learning Objectives 2.2 Introduction 2.3 Perception - Introduction to Perception 2.4 Learning - Introduction to Learning 2.5 Memory - Introduction to Memory 2.6 Summary 2.7 Glossary 2.8 Answers to In-Text Questions 2.9 Self-Assessment Questions 2.10 References 2.11 Suggested Readings 2.1 Learning Objectives ‹ ‹Comprehend perception and understand the perceptual organisational processes. ‹ ‹Understanding of learning and the principles that govern learning. ‹ ‹Understand memory as an information processing model. 2.2 Introduction The mind can be conceptualized as an information processor, similar to a computer. It en- codes, stores and retrieves information, which allows us to perceive and think. However, the human mind is much more complex than a computer. The mind takes in sensory inputs from PAGE 27 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 27 29-Aug-24 7:15:06 PM  FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY Notes the environment and then these inputs are then processed and interpreted by cognitive processes such as attention and memory. This lesson consists of three parts - perception, learning and memory. We will first begin with perception. 2.3 Perception - Introduction to Perception Sensory systems give the basic elements for the formation of experienc- es. Our sense organs do not choose what we are aware of or how we experience it; they just send as much information as possible through our nervous system. Our experiences, however, are not a one-to-one rep- resentation of what is external to our senses. Because perception is an active, creative process in which raw sensory data is organised and given meaning, different people may experience the same sensory information in truly different ways. Robbins (1993) has defined perception as a process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment. 2.3.1 Bottom-up and Top-down Processing The brain performs two types of processing tasks to generate our per- ceptions (Figure 2.1). In bottom-up processing, the system takes in in- dividual elements of the stimulus and then combines them into a unified perception. As you read, your visual system works from the bottom up. Its feature detectors analyse the elements in each letter of each word before recombining them into your visual representation of the letters and words. Figure 2.1: Bottom-up Processing and top-down Processing (Image source: Passer, M.W., & Smith, R.E. (2010). Psychology: The science of mind and behaviour. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill.) 28 PAGE Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 28 29-Aug-24 7:15:06 PM  Mind as Information Processor In top-down processing, sensory information is interpreted in light of Notes existing knowledge, concepts, ideas, and expectations. As you interpret the words and phrases created by the bottom-up processing, you are engaging in top-down processing. Here you apply higher-order knowl- edge, such as what you have learned about word meaning and sentence construction. Indeed, if you connect the content of a statement to some unique personal experiences, it might have an entirely different personal meaning to you than to another individual. Many psychological factors on perception, such as our expectations, previous experiences, and cultural learning, are accounted for by top-down processing. 2.3.2 Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization Early in the 20th century, Gestalt psychologists in Germany set out to understand how humans organise the various components of our percep- tual field into a cohesive and meaningful whole. Gestalt is German for ‘pattern’, ‘whole’, or ‘form.’ Gestalt theorists argued that the wholes we perceive are more than the sum of their parts. The perception in Figure 2.2 is more than just people on the football field. Figure 2.2: As Gestalt theorists emphasized the whole is more than sum of its parts (Image source: Passer, M.W., & Smith, R.E. (2010). Psychology: The science of mind and behaviour. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill.) PAGE 29 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 29 29-Aug-24 7:15:06 PM  FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY Notes The Gestalt theorists gave importance to figure-ground relations, our tendency to organize stimuli into a central or foreground figure and a background. The central figure in vision is frequently in front of or on top of what we perceive as the background. It has a distinct shape and stands out more than the background in our perceptions and memories. Wherever there is a distinct shift in the colour or brightness of a visual picture, we sense borders or contours, but we interpret these contours as part of the figure rather than the background. Similarly, we prefer to hear instrumental music as a melody (figure) surrounded by other chords or harmonies (ground), are equal to the task. However, it is not always clear what is figure and what is ground, and the same stimulus can result in two distinct perceptions. If you examine Figure 2.3, two opposing but equally plausible impressions will develop, one based on the central part and the other constructed from the two outer parts. What was formerly the figure becomes the background when the alternate perception happens. Figure 2.3: One Figure, Two Perceptions (Image source: Passer, M.W., & Smith, R.E. (2010). Psychology: The science of mind and behaviour. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill.) Additionally, Gestalt psychologists were curious about how separate stimuli became viewed as components of greater wholes. They suggested people group and interpret stimuli in accordance with Gestalt laws of perceptual organization. They are: 30 PAGE Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 30 29-Aug-24 7:15:06 PM  Mind as Information Processor Notes Figure 2.4: The Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization (Image source: Sternberg, R. J. (1996). Cognitive psychology. Harcourt Brace College Publishers.) ‹ ‹Law of Proximity: We have a tendency to perceive objects in close proximity as a group. The closer two figures are near each other (proximity), the more they will be perceptually grouped together. In the Figure 2.4a, we tend to see the middle four circles as two pairs of circles. ‹ ‹Law of Similarity: We have a tendency to group similar figures. In Figure 2.4b, we tend to see four columns of xs and os, not four rows of alternating letters. In this way, we organise the objects around us based on similarities in physical or psychological features. ‹ ‹Law of Continuity: The law of continuation refers to the tendency to perceive stimuli as part of a continuous pattern. Normally, our visual system favours contours that continue smoothly along their original path. When compared to prior experience, good continuation is a major organisational feature. In the Figure 2.4c, two fragmented curves are bisecting, which we perceive as two smooth curves, rather than as disjointed curves. This law is used in military settings to achieve camouflage. ‹ ‹Law of Closure: We have a tendency to perceive objects as whole entities, even if some elements are absent. In Figure 2.4d, these are disjointed, jumbled line segments, which you see as a triangle and a circle. PAGE 31 Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 31 29-Aug-24 7:15:06 PM  FOUNDATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY Notes ‹ ‹Law of Symmetry: We have a tendency to perceive objects as forming mirror images about their centre. In Figure 2.4e, a configuration of assorted brackets, we see the assortment as forming four sets of brackets, rather than eight individual items, because we integrate the symmetrical elements into coherent objects. These perceptual organisation laws or principles are not hard and fast rules. These basically describe how we interpret the world around us. We view objects in a variety of shapes and sizes. Perceptually, a form is perceived as a Gestalt, a whole is not the sum of its parts. When we see a form, we perceive specific relationships among the component elements that remain unchanged despite changes to the parts of a figure. Now we move to next part of the lesson, that is learning. IN-TEXT QUESTIONS 1. _______states that we have a tendency to perceive objects as forming mirror images about their centre. (a) Law of symmetry (b) Law of closure (c) Law of similarity (d) Law of proximity 2. Giving meaning to _______ around us is called perception. (a) Learning (b) Memory (c) Sensations (d) Processes 3. Many psychological factors such as expectations, perceived experiences are accounted for by _______. (a) Bottom-up processing (b) Top-down processing (c) Bottom-down processing (d) Top-up processing 32 PAGE Department of Distance & Continuing Education, Campus of Open Learning, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi GE_Foundation of Psychology_Main.indd 32 29-Aug-24 7:15:07 PM  Mind as Information Processor Notes 2.4 Learning - Introduction to Learning Our physiological responses, perceptions, and emotional responses are all impacted by learning. Experience teaches us to think, behave, and feel in ways that fully enrich our sense of self. Learning is the process by which experience results in a comparatively long-lasting modification of an organism’s skills or behaviour. For example, experience may give immediate knowledge (e.g., the girls learned how to bake a cupcake from YouTube), but in science learning must be measured by actual changes in performance (e.g., later that day they began baking cupcakes in the kitchen). 2.4.1 Classical Conditioning When you hear a song that you really like, you automatically feel happy. In classical conditioning, an organism learns to associate two stimuli, such as a song and a joyful event, such that eventually the song elicits a response (feeling good), which was previously only elicited by the other stimulus (the pleasurable event). This is an illustration of how classical conditioning works. Pavlov exposed dogs to food in an experiment and monitored their sal- ivation. Repeated testing revealed that the dogs started to salivate even before the food was offered, for example, as they heard the experimenter walking towards them. Let’s explore some concepts of classical condi