Psych104 Midterm Exam Reviewer-pv.pdf

PSYCH104: Biological Psychology Paula U. Villar ABPS 2B || Sem 1 Midterm Exam Reviewer AY 2024-2025 MAJOR ISSUES IN BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY Recessive genes- weak effect only in homozygous - The goal of Biological Psychology is to relate biology to cond...

PSYCH104: Biological Psychology Paula U. Villar ABPS 2B || Sem 1 Midterm Exam Reviewer AY 2024-2025 MAJOR ISSUES IN BIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY Recessive genes- weak effect only in homozygous - The goal of Biological Psychology is to relate biology to conditions issues of psychology Autosomal genes- located in autosomal Biological Explanations of Behavior chromosomes 1. Physiological- relates the behavior to the activity of Sex linked genes- located in sex chromosomes the brain and other organs ○ Ex. Color blindness- Any man with this gene on his X chromosome experiences this color deficiency because he - Ex. Parkinsons- lower level of dopamine has no other X chromosome. A woman can only be color causes involuntary movements deficient if she has that recessive gene on both of her X 2. Ontogenetic- how a structure or behavior develops chromosomes. including the influence of genes, nutrition, experiences, Sex limited genes- present in both sexes, but active and other interactions mainly on one sex. Located on autosomal - Ability to inhibit impulses develops gradually chromosomes from infancy to adolescence. ○ Ex. Breast size in women, chest hair for men - Ex. spoiled children gradually develop different personalities that are learned as they A. Heredity and Environment develop. - Every behavior requires both heredity and environment 3. Evolutionary- behaviors across generations - Environment=Conscious - Evolutionary history of certain behaviors Hereditary vs Prenatal Influences - Ex. Goosebumps- makes a frightened animal - Biological parents give genes and prenatal look larger environment (diet, medical care, nutrition, 4. Functional- describes why a structure or behavior etc.) evolved as it did. Multiplier Effect - Ex. Camouflage- makes animal - Genes can also influence behavior indirectly inconspicuous to predators thus aiding in its by changing your environment survival; B. The Evolution of Behavior - Change over generations The Mind-Brain Relationship - Reproductive success= passing on genes and A. Dualism- Mind and body are separate increases the frequency of genes. - Rejected due to conflict with the law of a. Artificial Selection- used by breeders conservation of matter and energy - Choosing individuals with desired traits and makes B. Monism- Universe consists of only one kind of them parents of the next generation substance b. Natural Selection- individuals who are more a. Materialism- All psychological experiences successful than others have genes that are able to can be explained in purely physical terms become more prevalent in later generations b. Mentalism- only the mind really exists and that the c. Reciprocal Altruism- individuals help those physical world could not exists unless some mind were who will return the favor (or extend help to others) aware of it d. Kin selection- altruistic behavior is more c. Identity Position- mental processes and certain common towards relatives than towards unrelated kinds of brain activities are the same thing individuals - Mind exists as the brain - Altruistic groups survive better than less cooperative - Most reasonable working hypothesis ones - Stimulation of the brain provokes experience - One cannot have mental activity without brain activity C. Genes and Behavior - Genes ≠ Condition Genetics of Behavior - Rather, it produces a protein that under certain Gene- a portion of a chromosome, DNA circumstances increases the probability of that Strand of DNA- a template for the synthesis of RNA which condition. serves as template for protein molecules - Ex. When born conventionally attractive, you Homozygous- identical pair of genes on 2 grow up to have a greater confidence than chromosomes average person due to “fitting in” the societal Heterozygous- unmatched pair of genes beauty standard. Dominant genes- strong effect in either - Ex. A child with perfect pitch can be praised by homozygous or heterozygous conditions their talent– leading to the child engaging more in activities that can 1  TYPES OF GLIA CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM LECTURE 2 Astrocytes 2 KINDS OF CELLS (NS): - Shields synapses (SECURITY) 1. Neurons - Wrap around presynaptic terminals of a group of - Receives information and transmits it to other functionally related axons. cells Microglia 2. Glia (Neuroglia) - Removes waste, removes weakest synapse - “Glue” holds neurons together (JANITORS) - Supportive framework for the Nervous System. - Important to brain damage - Does not transmit information over long Oligodendrocytes(CNS) and Schwann cells distances (PNS) - Builds myelin sheath (Oligodendrocytes) ANATOMY OF THE NEURON - Insulates the vertebrate axon. (Schwann) Dendrites Radial glia - Branching fibers that receive info - Guides the migration of neurons during Cell Body/Soma embryonic development. (PRENATAL) - Contains nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria - Dies off or becomes neurons when early - Covered with synapse development is matured. Axon - Thin fiber, sends information to organs, BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER muscles, and other neurons - When the immune system detects a virus, it kills it. The ○ Presynaptic Terminal- Branches at the end of damaged neurons are not replaced. the axon - Any virus that goes through the barrier stays in the NS Myelin Sheath for its entire lifetime. (rabies, chicken pox, shingles, - Covers the axon genital herpes, etc.) - Interrupted by Nodes of Ranvier ➔ Tight Endothelial Cell Junctions - Keeps out useful and harmful chemicals CAN PASS THROUGH with ACTIVE TRANSPORT: - Glucose, amino acids, purines, choline, vitamin iron, and a few hormones. - Protein mediated process - Glucose is relied on heavily because it can pass through in large quantities. TYPES OF NEURONS - Thiamine (Vitamin B1) is needed to use Motor Neuron glucose. - receives excitation from other neurons and SYNAPSES conducts impulses along its axon to a - A neuron releases neurotransmitters (chemicals) that muscle. EXCITE and INHIBIT other cells or alter its - has its soma in the spinal cord response/input. Sensory Neuron - Repeated stimuli within a brief period has a - Highly sensitive to types of simulation (light, cumulative effect sound, touch) - Transmission at synapse goes through many steps and interruption can alter the outcome. - Nearly ALL psychiatric drugs act at the synapse. Interneuron - increases/decreases messages/release of - Communication between motor and sensory chemicals neuron. - Dendrites and axon are contained within a single structure NEUROTRANSMITTERS Afferent - Released by one neuron at a synapse that affects a - Sensory second neuron. - Brings info to a structure FAMILIES: (unimportant) Efferent 1. Amino Acids - Motor 2. Neuropeptides - Brings info away from a structure 3. Acetylcholine 2  4. Monoamines 5. Purines 5. Acetylcholine 6. Gasses - LEARNING - thought, learning & memory TYPES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS - Attention, enhancing sensory perception Neurotransmitters can either be: upon waking. A. Excitatory - activates muscle action - cause neurons to fire action potentials - Damage to acetylcholine producing areas= (electric signals) Memory deficits B. Inhibitory - prevent action potentials from being fired 6. Glutamate - MEMORY i. Action Potential - Most common neurotransmitter in the brain - stimulation past the threshold producing - Regulates brain development & reaction of depolarization. Activates the neuron. Plays nerve contacts. an important role in cell to cell - Toxic to neurons in large quantities communication. In muscle cell, the firing of - Brain damage or strokes can lead to creation of an action potential can cause a muscle harmful excess, killing of brain cells. contraction 7. Endorphins 1. Adrenaline - EUPHORIA - (Epinephrine) - Are a range of compounds formed from long - FIGHT OR FLIGHT chains of amino acids - Produced in high stress or exciting situations - They are released in the brain during exercise, - Stimulates heart rate, contracts blood vessels, excitement, pain, and sexual activity dilates airways, increase blood flow to muscle - Produces a feeling of well being and euphoria and oxygen to lungs - At Least 20 types of endorphins have been - Leads to a physical boost and heightened observed awareness. - Chocolate can also stimulate the release of endorphins 2. Noradrenaline - (Norepinephrine) 8. GABA - CONCENTRATION - CALMING - Affects attention and responding actions in - Gamma Aminobutyric Acid the brain - Major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain - Patients with ADHD are often prescribed - Calms firing nerves in the CNS medication that increase levels of - Also contributes to motor control and vision noradrenaline in the brain - High levels= improves mental focus and relaxation 3. Dopamine - Low levels= anxiety, epilepsy - PLEASURE & SATISFACTION - Associated with addiction, movement and motivation - Natural activities & synthetic substances can trigger release of dopamine 4. Serotonin - MOOD - Feelings of well-being and happiness - Regulates sleep-wake cycle & intestinal movements - Low levels= depression/anxiety - Antidepressants= increases serotonin - To increase naturally= exercise and light exposure 3 NEUROTRANS- Excitatory MAIN Stimulation of MITTER or EFFECTS High Levels Low Levels release Other Uses Inhibitory Adrenaline Excitatory Fight or Flight High stress or Allergic (physical) exciting reactions situations (EpiPens) Noradrenaline Excitatory Concentration Prescribed Attention medicine to Fight or Flight ADHD patients (mental) Dopamine Both Pleasure Schizophrenia Parkinson’s Natural activities and synthetic substances Serotonin Both Mood Depression Exercise Antidepressants Intestinal Anxiety Light exposure Movement Acetylcholine Both Learning Memory Deficits Endorphins Excitatory Euphoria Chocolate Glutamate Excitatory Memory Kills brain cells Cognitive due to brain Functions damage/ strokes GABA Inhibitory Calming Improved mental Anxiety focus and Epilepsy relaxation 4 HORMONES OF THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM 4. Adrenal Glands Hormones - Secretes Corticosteroids - Regulate heartbeat, stress - are chemicals that are secreted by a gland or other resistance & muscle development. cells and conveyed by the blood to other organs, whose - Cortisol (stress hormone)- Regulate metabolism, activity it influences. blood sugar, inflammation. - neurotransmitters conveys messages directly from - Adrenaline or Epinephrine - Helps arouse the body to sender to the receiver (telephone) while hormones are cope with threats & stress. Intensifies emotions such as like radio stations, they convey message to any fear & anxiety. receiver who is tuned in - Made up of ductless glands 5. Islet of Langerhans - Secretes hormones (chemical messengers) directly - Found in the pancreas into bloodstream - Secretes insulin that prevents the accumulation of - Oversecretion and under secretion of hormones may sugar in the blood. disrupt normal functioning affecting behavior - Undersecretion of insulin = increase in blood sugar (hyperglycemia) 1. Pineal Gland - Secretes the hormone melatonin which 6. Sex Glands regulates the sleep-wake cycle, secreted - Gonads of males (testes) produce testosterone that primarily at night helps produce male secondary characteristics. - Melatonin is a mild sedative, signals the body - Sex Glands of females (ovaries) produce estrogen when it is time to sleep, and progesterone. - May affect the onset of puberty & is also connected with aging 2. Pituitary Gland - Master Gland - Controls the activities of other glands - Controlled by the Hypothalamus - Growth hormone Somatotropin - Secretes Vasopressin, an antidiuretic hormone which controls water secretion of kidneys. a. Oxytocin - stimulates labor/breastfeeding/attachment A. Anterior Pituitary Thyroid - Thyroid Stimulating Hormones (TSH) Ovaries - Luteinizing Hormone (LH) Gonads - Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) Adrenals - Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) Prolactin - Milk Production Growth - Growth Hormone (Somatotropin) B. Posterior Pituitary Vasopressin Oxytocin 3. Thyroid Gland - Secretes Thyroxine - controls metabolism - Hyperthyroidism - Increased metabolism = irritable and tired, excitability, insomnia, weight loss - Hypothyroidism - Low levels of thyroxine, can cause mental retardation in children known as cretinism. 5 ANATOMY OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM LECTURE 3 1. Central Nervous System (CNS) TERMINOLOGY Directions a. Brain Dorsal- Top b. Spinal Cord - Towards the back, away from ventral, 2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Ventral- Bottom a. Somatic Nervous System- voluntary - Towards the stomach, away from dorsal, - controls skeletal muscles Anterior- Towards the front end - consists of the axons conveying messages Posterior- Towards the rear end from the sense organs to the CNS and Superior- Above another part from the CNS to the muscles Inferior- Below another part b. Autonomic Nervous System Lateral- Toward the side, away from the midline - involuntary - controls the heart, intestines & other Medial- Toward the midline, away from the side organs Proximal- located close to the point of origin / i. Sympathetic NS attachment - has an activation or arousal Distal- located more distant from point of origin / function, and it tends to act as a total attachment unit; it mobilizes the body; sometimes Ipsilateral- on the same side of the body (e.g. 2 parts called the fight-or-flight response on the right) ii. Parasympathetic NS Contralateral- On the opposite side of the body -slows down body processes and maintains a state of tranquility TERMINOLOGY PLANES HOMEOSTASIS- A delicately balanced or constant Coronal Plane- Shows brain structures as seen from internal state by the two subdivisions working together the front Sagittal Plane- Shows brain structures as seen from the side THE SPINAL CORD Horizontal/Transverse Plane- Shows brain - Part of the CNS within the spinal column structures as seen from above - Communicates with all of the sense organs and muscles except those of the head (the face and head are connected to the cranial nerves instead) - A segmented structure and has a sensory and a motor nerve on each segment side - Ends at L1/L2 vertebrae Dorsal Root Ganglia - Cell bodies of the sensory neurons are in a cluster of neurons outside the spinal cord. Bell Magendie Law - The entering dorsal roots (axon bundles) carry Lamina- a row or layer of cell bodies separated from sensory info, and then exiting ventral roots other cell bodies by a layer of axons and dendrites carry motor information Tract- (projection) is a set of axons within the CNS H shaped gray matter - In the center of the cord is densely packed Nerve- is a set of axons outside the CNS with cell bodies and dendrites Nucleus- is a cluster of neuron cell bodies within - Many neurons of the spinal cord send axons the CNS from the gray matter to the brain or other parts Ganglion- is a cluster of neuron cell bodies outside of the spinal cord through the white matter the CNS (usually in the sympathetic NS) - White Matter- mostly of Myelinated Gyrus- a protuberance on the surface of the brain Axons Sulcus- a fold/groove that separates one gyrus - Each segment of the spinal cord sends sensory from another information to the brain and receives motor Fissure- a long deep sulcus commands from the brain - All that information passes through the tracts of axons in the spinal cord - If a spinal cord is cut at a given segment the brain loses DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM sensation from that segment and below. It also loses 6  motor control all over parts of the body served by that 9. Glossopharyngeal- taste from posterior 1/3 of tongue, segment and lower ones. swallowing, throat movements during speech - Axons from the skin and muscles are PNS 10. Vagus- LONGEST. sensations from neck, control of throat, esophagus, larynx, parasym, nerves of stomach/intestines. 11. Accessory- neck and shoulder movements 12. Hypoglossal- control of muscles of tongue II. Midbrain mesencephalon - the middle of the brain, surrounded & dwarfed by the forebrain. - Main parts of the midbrain include the tectum, tegmentum, and substantia nigra. A. Tectum - The roof of the midbrain. - The swelling on each side of the tectum is called superior colliculus which processes information for vision and the inferior colliculus which processes information for hearing (audition). B. Tegmentum THE BRAIN - Is the intermediate level of the midbrain that covers MAJOR DIVISIONS OF THE BRAIN several other midbrain structures. I. Hindbrain rhombencephalon - It contains nuclei for III (oculomotor) & IV (trochlear) - It is the lowest portion of the brain where the cranial nerves spinal cord rises to meet the brain C. Substantia nigra - Sometimes called the myelencephalon (marrow - gives rise to the dopamine containing pathway that brain) and facilitates readiness for movement metencephalon (after brain). III. Forebrain telencephalon - posterior part of the brain - The topmost structure of the consists of the medulla, brain where higher cognitive pons and cerebellum processes take place. A. Medulla - The most anterior & prominent - Helps to control vital part of the mammalian brain reflexes including breathing, heart rate, Cerebral Cortex vomiting, salivation, coughing and sneezing - A.k.a. Cerebrum through the cranial nerves (which controls - The outer portion of the forebrain sensation & movement from the head). - The most anterior & prominent part of the B. Pons mammalian brain - Lie anterior and ventral to the medulla. It contains - Where the highest mental functions take place. nuclei of some cranial nerves, “bridge” axons in the (thinking, planning) pons cross from one side of the brain to the other. - The cell bodies (soma) of the cerebral cortex are gray C. Cerebellum matter, and their axons extending inward are the - Involved in movement, motor coordination and white matter balance, as well as processing visual & auditory Hemispheres- wrinkled surface of the cerebral stimuli. cortex Corpus callosum- Neurons in each CRANIAL NERVES oh oh oh, to touch and feel very good velvet ah heaven hemisphere communicate with neurons in the 1. Olfactory- smell corresponding part of the other hemisphere 2. Optic- vision through a bundle of axons 3. Oculomotor- eye movements/ pupil constriction Thalamus 4. Trochlear- eye movements - where most sensory input is received, then sends it to 5. Trigeminal- skin sensations from the face the cerebral cortex. 6. Abducens- eye movements Hypothalamus 7. Facial- taste from anterior 2/3 of tongue, facial expression, - is a small area at the base of the brain ventral to salivation thalamus. 8. Statoacoustic- hearing / equilibrium - Hormone Control 7  - It conveys a message to the pituitary gland, controls Choroid Plexus feeding, drinking, temperature regulation and sexual - A network of cells inside the ventricles that behavior. produce cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Basal Ganglia FOUR LOBES OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX - A group of subcortical structures lateral to the 1. Frontal Lobe thalamus. It includes 3 major structures: - contains the primary motor cortex involved in - caudate nucleus the control of movements and - putamen - the prefrontal cortex which receives information - globus pallidus. from all the sensory systems and plays a role in - Primary function is to control conscious and working memory proprioceptive movements - associated to planning, judgment, adapting to new - Increase the vigor of selected actions situations, flexibility of behavior and personality - learning and remembering skills and habits - Learning that develops gradually with extended - Prefrontal lobotomies were performed. experience 2. Temporal Lobe - In conditions like Parkinson's & Huntington's - located on the lateral portion of each hemisphere disease, the basal ganglia deteriorates which - It processes auditory information and complex results in impaired movement, depression, deficits visual information: the perception of movement, of memory, reasoning and attention. recognition of faces. The Wernicke's area Limbic System - (on the left temporal lobe) is responsible for - A loosely connected network of structures under understanding spoken language the cerebral cortex. - a tumor in a temporal lobe may cause - important in memory and emotions. elaborate visual & auditory hallucinations a. Amygdala - plays a role in emotional and - involved in the discrimination of objects motivational behaviors. necessary for survival Broca’s Area - appropriate food, mates, social rivals, etc. - Word formation, responsible for creating - also connected to aggressive behavior language/speaking language. b. Hippocampus 3. Parietal Lobe - Storage of memories - Lies between the occipital lobe & central sulcus. - It contains the primary somatosensory cortex which The CNS begins its development as a tube surrounding a fluid processes touch sensations. canal. The canal persists into adulthood as the: - This lobe is involved in registering spatial Central canal location, attention and motor control. - a fluid filled chanel at the center of the spinal cord 4. Occipital Lobe Ventricles - located at the posterior end of the cortex and it - four fluid filled cavities within the brain contains the primary visual cortex. - Cells called choroid plexus inside the 4 ventricles - A stroke or wound in this area can cause cortical produces: blindness. Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)- a clear fluid similar to blood plasma - CSF fills the ventricles. Some of it flows into the central canal of the spinal cord. - Most of the CSF goes into the narrow between the brain and thin meninges (membranes that surround the brain & spinal cord) - Cushions the brain and provides buoyancy - Meningitis- Painful inflammation of the meninges due to the presence of pain receptors at this area - Hydrocephalus- when the flow of CSF is obstructed, it accumulated within the ventricles increasing pressure on the brain, causing the spread of skull bones 8