Psych Review PDF

Chapter 7 cognition The way in which information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing. artificial intelligence (AI) A scientific field that focuses on creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by people. thinking T...

Chapter 7 cognition The way in which information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing. artificial intelligence (AI) A scientific field that focuses on creating machines capable of performing activities that require intelligence when they are done by people. thinking The process of manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting critically or creatively. concept A mental category that is used to group objects, events, and characteristics. problem solving The mental process of finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not readily available. Problem solving is the mental process of finding an appropriate way to attain a goal. reasoning The mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions. inductive reasoning Reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations. deductive reasoning Reasoning from a general case that is known to be true to a specific instance. decision making The mental activity of evaluating alternatives and choosing among them. Decision making is evaluating alternatives and making choices among them. loss aversion The tendency to strongly prefer to avoid losses compared to attempting to acquire gains. Miguel could gamble four quarters in a carnival game, with the potential to win as many as 20 quarters. However, the possibility that he might end up with no quarters at all leads Miguel to choose not to play. Miguel's decision illustrates loss aversion. Loss aversion is the concept from behavioral economics and psychology that people tend to strongly prefer avoiding losses rather than acquiring equivalent gains. In this case, the potential loss of his quarters outweighs the excitement of potentially winning more, leading Miguel to avoid the risk altogether. confirmation bias The tendency to search for and use information that supports one’s ideas rather than refutes them. The tendency to focus only on information that supports your opinion is called the confirmation bias. hindsight bias The tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that one has accurately predicted an outcome.? availability heuristic A prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events. Thinking that a plane crash is more likely than a car crash because you can easily remember dramatic images of plane crashes on TV is an example of this cognitive shortcut base rate neglect The tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid information. representativeness heuristic The tendency to make judgments about group membership based on physical appearances or the match between a person and one’s stereotype of a group rather than on available base rate information. Mindfulness The state of being alert and mentally present for one’s everyday activities. intelligence All-purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, to solve problems, and to learn from experience. validity The soundness of the conclusions that a researcher draws from an experiment. In the realm of testing, the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to measure. reliability The extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproducible measure of performance standardization The development of uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test, and the creation of norms (performance standards) for the test. A testing center administers tests for all students taking a specific math class. The testing center gives each student the same instructions and the same amount of time and uses the same rubric for grading. The center is exhibiting standardization mental age (MA) An individual’s level of mental development relative to that of others. intelligence quotient (IQ) An individual’s mental age divided by chronological age multiplied by 100. heritability The proportion of observable differences in a group that can be explained by differences in the genes of the group’s members. triarchic theory of intelligence Sternberg’s theory that intelligence comes in three forms: analytical, creative, and practical Analytical, creative, practical intelligence Practical intelligence is the ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practice, The ability to judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast is known as analytical intelligence. The ability to design, invent, originate, and imagine is known as creative intelligence. language A form of communication—whether spoken, written, or signed—that is based on a system of symbols. infinite generativity The ability of language to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences. phonology A language’s sound system. morphology A language’s rules for word formation. syntax A language’s rules for combining words to form acceptable phrases and sentences. semantics The meaning of words and sentences in a particular language. pragmatics The useful character of language and the ability of language to communicate even more meaning than is verbalized. dyslexia A learning disability characterized by difficulty with learning to read fluently and with accurate comprehension, despite normal intelligence. Even though flamingo attacks are extremely uncommon, Shanice is terrified of flamingos because of a flamingo attack she once saw on a nature show on television. This is an example of Base Rate Neglect Chapter 8 development The pattern of continuity and change in human capabilities that occurs throughout life, involving both growth and decline. cross-sectional design A research design in which a group of people is assessed on a psychological variable at one point in time. In Cross section designs, a number of people are assessed at one point in time. In a research study, Dr. Lopez asks people ages 20, 40, and 60 about their levels of happiness. This research is best described as which of cross secetional cross-sectional nurture An individual’s environmental and social experiences. nature An individual’s biological inheritance, especially genes. longitudinal design A special kind of systematic observation, used by correlational researchers, that involves obtaining measures of the variables of interest in multiple waves over time. resilience A person’s ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times. Physical, cognitive, and sociemotional preferential looking A research technique that involves giving an infant a choice of what object to look at. puberty A period of rapid skeletal and sexual maturation that occurs mainly in early adolescence. Cognitive Development How thoughts, intelligence, changes as we mature Socieomotional development- involves changes in a person's relationships, personality, and emotional life temperament An individual’s behavioral style and characteristic way of responding. Eriksons theory of sociemotional development- 8 stages of development: infancy, toddlerhood, early childhood, middle and late childhood (6-puberty), adolescent (10-20), early adulthood (20-30s), middle adulthood (40-50’s), late adulthood (60-) initiative versus guilt Trust versus mistrust→ infancy Autonomy vs. shame-childhood initiative versus guilt → early childhood (ages 3 to 5) identity versus identity confusion→ adolescence (10 to 20 years) intimacy versus isolation → early adulthood (20s, 30s) generativity versus stagnation → middle adulthood assimilation An individual’s incorporation of new information into existing knowledge. accommodation An individual’s adjustment of their schemas to new information. According to Piaget's theory, which of the following occurs when people adjust schemas to new information? Accommodation wisdom Expert knowledge about the practical aspects of life. teratogen- agent which causes developmental problems, hence alcohol in pregnant women Select the three domains of development.cognitive, physical, socioemotional preferential looking A research technique that involves giving an infant a choice of what object to look at.Dr. Salzano is showing infants pictures of their parents and of strangers. He wants to know if the babies will consistently look at their parents rather than look at the two pictures equally. Dr. Salzano is using the prefenterial technique. Piagetes theory- humans use schemas to make sense of things, schema= mental concept that organizes info and provides framework to understand it, Piaget's concrete operational stage is the stage at 7 to 11 years of age in which abstract thinking has not yet developed. assimilation An individual’s incorporation of new information into existing knowledge. accommodation An individual’s adjustment of their schemas to new information. Socioemotional- gender The social and psychological aspects of being male, female, both, or neither. gender and biological development- XY and XX(female) chromosomes Gender scheme- framework of what gender means in culture Moral development- development and changes in peoples thoughts of one's values, morales and everything Kholbergs theory on moral development- preconventional (based on punishment), conventioaln, and post conventional Backlash about his theory- He does not adequately acknowledge how some people's moral views are shaped by concern for others, not for individual rights. He does not adequately account for the role of culture in shaping morality. He does not distinguish between moral reasoning and moral behavior. prosocial behavior Behavior that is intended to benefit other people. egocentrism A schema renders us unable to distinguish between our own perspective and someone else's perspective. incorrect psychosocial-Erikson wanted to emphasize how a developing person's psychological life is embedded in and shaped by social relationships and challenges, which is why he identifies the stages in his theory as psychosocial According to anthropologist Ernest Becker, people's culture may provide the customary beliefs, practices, religious rules, and social order for their experience of mortality. Therefore, being a part of this shields us from the terror of our own mortality. Chapter 9: motivation The force that moves people to behave, think, and feel the way they do. instinct An innate (unlearned) biological pattern of behavior that is assumed to be universal throughout a species. need A deprivation that energizes the drive to eliminate or reduce the deprivation. Yerkes-Dodson law The psychological principle states that performance is best under conditions of moderate arousal rather than either low or high arousal. set point The weight maintained when the individual makes no effort to gain or lose weight. estrogens The class of sex hormones that predominates in females, produced mainly by the ovaries. androgens The class of sex hormones that predominates in males, produced by the testes in males and by the adrenal glands in all people. sexual orientation The direction of an individual’s erotic interests, today viewed as a continuum from exclusive male–female relations to exclusive same-gender relations. pansexual A person’s sexual attractions do not depend on the biological sex, gender, or gender identity of others. asexual A person experiences a lack of sexual attraction to others and may feel no sexual orientation. hierarchy of needs Maslow’s theory that human needs must be satisfied in the following sequence: physiological needs, safety, love and belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization. self-determination theory Deci and Ryan’s theory asserting that all humans have three basic, innate organismic needs: competence, relatedness, and autonomy. There are three basic needs: competence, autonomy, and relatedness. All individuals have the capacity for growth and fulfillment. Psychological needs are innate. intrinsic motivation Motivation based on internal factors such as organismic needs (competence, relatedness, and autonomy), as well as curiosity, challenge, and fun. self-regulation The process by which an organism effortfully controls its behavior in order to pursue important objectives. The process by which an individual pursues important objectives by setting goals and monitoring progress is called self-regulation Self-actualization is the motivation to develop one’s full potential as a human being. emotion Feeling, or affect, that can involve physiological arousal (such as a fast heartbeat), conscious experience (thinking about being in love with someone), and behavioral expression (a smile or grimace). ANS (autonomic nervous system)- to and from organs, monitoring heart, breathing, digestion SNS (sympathetic nervous system)- bodys arousal The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems are divisions of the autonomic nervous sysytem James-Lange theory The theory that emotion results from physiological states triggered by stimuli in the environment.When you are on a first date, your hands begin to sweat, and you begin to feel nervous. What theory of emotion would say that the sweating caused the nervousness? James Lange Cannon-Bard theory The proposition that emotion and physiological reactions occur simultaneously. two-factor theory of emotion Schachter and Singer’s theory that emotion is determined by two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive labeling. facial feedback hypothesis The idea that facial expressions can influence emotions and reflect them. display rules Sociocultural standards that determine when, where, and how emotions should be expressed. negative affect Negative emotions such as anger, guilt, and sadness. broaden-and-build model Fredrickson’s model of positive emotion, stating that the function of positive emotions lies in their effects on an individual’s attention and ability to build resources. cholecystokinin (CCK)- which hormone helps start the digestion of food, travels to the brain through the bloodstream, and signals us to stop eating? In drive reduction theory, a(n) need is a deprivation that energizes the drive to eliminate or reduce that deprivation. Stereotyped patterns of expectations for how people should behave sexually are a type of mental scripts called sexual scripts. An early sex research pioneer, Alfred Kinsey, gathered data from anyone willing to talk to him. Why was using this interview technique and collecting data in this way a problem? His sample was essentially self-selected and not representative. The direction of someone's erotic interests is called their Sexual Orientation. Which of the following play an important role in the biology of hunger? blood chemistry, stomach contractions An early sex research pioneer, Alfred Kinsey, gathered data from anyone willing to talk to him. Why was using this interview technique and collecting data in this way a problem? His sample was essentially self-selected and not representative. correct Arrange Maslow's stages in the order in which the needs must be fulfilled 1. Physiological needs 2. Safety 3. Love and belongingness 4. Esteem 5. Self actualization People generally tend to adapt rapidly to events or things that initially made them very happy and this enhances their positive feelings for only a short period of time. This concept is known as the hedonic treadmill personality A pattern of enduring, distinctive thoughts, emotions, and behaviors that characterize the way an individual adapts to the world. psychodynamic perspectives Theoretical views emphasizing that personality is primarily unconscious (beyond awareness). 3 structure of personality- id The part of the person that Freud called the “it,” consisting of unconscious drives; the individual’s reservoir of sexual energy. Operating on the pleasure principle, the id does not worry about the future. The id represents unconscious drives that extend beyond the preconscious. ego The Freudian structure of personality that deals with the demands of reality. “I” superego The Freudian structure of personality that serves as the harsh internal judge of the individual’s behavior; what is often referred to as conscience. The superego is responsible for determining what is good and bad. “above I” According to the personality structure proposed by Freud, the superego determines what is right and wrong, the ego determines what is the reality, and the iD determines what would be pleasurable. defense mechanisms Tactics the ego uses to reduce anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality. Denial- In the defense mechanism known as denial, the ego refuses to acknowledge anxiety-producing realities. Displacement- Directing unacceptable impulses at a less threatening target is known as displacement Projectionism- Sublimation- In the defense mechanism known as sublimation, the ego replaces an unacceptable impulse with a socially acceptable one. Reaction formation- In the defense mechanism known as reaction formation, the ego transforms an unacceptable motive into its opposite, so that the person's conscious experience is the opposite of how they really feel. Many people who criticize the immorality of contemporary society are then found to engage in these same activities. This is due to the defense mechanism of reaction formation Oedipus complex According to Freud, a boy’s intense desire to replace his father and enjoy the affections of his mother. collective unconscious Jung’s term for the impersonal, deepest layer of the unconscious mind, shared by all human beings because of their common ancestral past. This was Jung's term for the transpersonal, deepest layer of the unconscious mind, shared by all humans because of their common ancestral past. Psychodynamic Perspectives- The idea that personality is determined by current and early experiences and the idea that we mentally transform our experiences are core principles of psychodynamic theories. In psychoanalytic theory, the superego's job is to do which of the following? Evaluate the morality of our behavior We mentally transform our experiences, which allows them to shape our personalities. Personality is determined by current and early experiences. humanistic perspectives Theoretical views stressing a person’s capacity for personal growth and positive human qualities. Maslow’s Approach- unconditional positive regard Rogers’s construct referring to the individual’s need to be accepted, valued, and treated positively regardless of their behavior. trait theories Theoretical views stressing that personality consists of broad, enduring dispositions (traits) that tend to lead to characteristic responses. The trait perspective views personality as a collection of broad, enduring dispositions that lead to characteristic behaviors. big five factors of personality The five broad traits that are thought to describe the main dimensions of personality: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism (emotional instability). social cognitive perspectives Theoretical views emphasizing conscious awareness, beliefs, expectations, and goals. Social cognitive theorists believe that we acquire a wide range of behaviors, thoughts, and feelings through observing others' behavior and that these observations form an important part of our personalities. cognitive affective processing systems (CAPS) Mischel’s theoretical model for describing that individuals’ thoughts and emotions about themselves and the world affect their behavior and become linked in ways that matter to that behavior. If the goal is to predict how an individual will behave in a specific situation, which model of personality would contend that we need to know the individual's thoughts, emotions, and beliefs, details of the situation, and how all of those factors are interrelated? Gray stated that there are two neurological systems responsible for personality, the behavioral activation and the behavioral inhibition systemunderlies the trait of extraversion. predisposes people to having positive feelings. reinforcement sensitivity theory A theory proposed by Jeffrey Gray identifying two biological systems linked to learning associations between behaviors and rewards or punishers. The behavioral activation system is sensitive to learning about rewards. The behavioral inhibition system is sensitive to learning about punishers. behavioral genetics The study of the inherited underpinnings of behavioral characteristics. empirically keyed test A type of self-report test that presents many questionnaire items to two groups that are known to be different in some central way. projective test A personality assessment test that presents individuals with an ambiguous stimulus and asks them to describe it or tell a story about it—to project their own meaning onto the stimulus. Chapter 11 social psychology The study of how people think about, influence, and relate to other people. bystander effect The tendency of an individual who observes an emergency to be less likely to help when other people are present than when the observer is alone. social cognition The area of social psychology exploring how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information. way in which individuals think about social situations and other people. person perception The processes by which an individual uses social stimuli to form impressions of others. stereotype A generalization about a group’s characteristics that does not consider any variations from one individual to another. self-fulfilling prophecy Social expectations that cause an individual to act in such a way that the expectations are realized. If people think that members of a specific group lack ambition, they may treat them in a way that actually brings about a lack of ambition. What does this illustrate? Self fulfilling prophecy attribution theory The view that people are motivated to discover the underlying causes of behavior as part of their effort to make sense of the behavior. Attribution Theory identifies the important dimensions at work in attributions. Internal and external cause- Stable and unstable causes- Controllable and uncontrollable causes- fundamental attribution error Observers’ overestimation of the importance of internal traits and underestimation of the importance of external situations when they seek explanations of another person’s behavior. positive illusions Favorable views of the self that are not necessarily rooted in reality. attitudes An individual’s opinions and beliefs about people, objects, and ideas—how the person feels about the world. Persuasion involves trying to change someone's attitudes and/or behavior. altruism Giving to another person with the ultimate goal of benefiting that person, even if it incurs a cost to oneself. egoism Giving to another person to ensure reciprocity; to gain self-esteem; to present oneself as powerful, competent, or caring; or to avoid social and self-censure for failing to live up to society’s expectations. empathy A feeling of oneness with the emotional state of another person. aggression Social behavior whose objective is to harm someone, either physically or verbally. Frustration and aggression/aversion-Frustration always leads to aggression.One theory of aggression suggests that frustration, (the reaction to the thwarting or blocking of goals) produces anger, leading to a readiness to display aggression Observational thinking Culture of honor-a man's reputation is thought to be an essential aspect of his (and his family's) economic survival. Such cultures may foster aggressive behavior. overt aggression Physical or verbal behavior that directly harms another person. relational aggression Behavior that is meant to harm the social standing of another person. mere exposure effect The phenomenon that the more individuals encounter someone or something, the more probable it is that they will start liking the person or thing even if they do not realize they have seen it before. romantic love or passionate love Love with strong components of sexuality and infatuation, often predominant in the early part of a love relationship. affectionate love or companionate love Love that occurs when an individual has a deep, caring affection for another person and desires to have that person near. social exchange theory The view of social relationships as involving an exchange of goods, the objective of which is to minimize costs and maximize benefits.The influence other people have on us because we want to be correct is this conformity A change in a person’s behavior to coincide more closely with a group standard. informational social influence The influence other people have on us because we want to be right. deindividuation The reduction in personal identity and erosion of the sense of personal responsibility when one is part of a group. social identity The way individuals define themselves in terms of their group membership. prejudice An unjustified negative attitude toward an individual based on the individual’s membership in a group. Social learning approach to aggression emphasizes that social and environmental conditions can teach individuals to be aggressive. Task oriented- An important feature of intergroup contact is cooperation—working together on a shared goal. Chapter 12: abnormal behavior Behavior that is deviant, maladaptive, or personally distressful over a relatively long period of time. medical model The view that psychological disorders are medical diseases with a biological origin. DSM-5 The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), 5th ed.; the major classification of psychological disorders in the United States. comorbidity The simultaneous presence of two or more disorders in one person. The conditions are referred to as “comorbid.” Autism Spectrum- The two features that characterize autism spectrum disorder are which of the following? Showing persistent deficits in social communication and interaction across various settings Showing restrictive repetitive behaviors, interests, and activities attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) One of the most common psychological disorders of childhood, in which individuals show one or more of the following: inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. anxiety disorders Disabling (uncontrollable and disruptive) psychological disorders that feature motor tension, hyperactivity, and apprehensive expectations and thoughts. panic disorder Anxiety disorder in which the individual experiences recurrent, sudden onsets of intense apprehension or terror, often without warning and with no specific cause. specific phobia Psychological disorder in which an individual has an irrational, overwhelming, persistent fear of a particular object or situation social anxiety disorder or social phobia An intense fear of being humiliated or embarrassed in social situations. obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) Disorder in which the individual has anxiety-provoking thoughts that will not go away and/or urges to perform repetitive, ritualistic behaviors to prevent or produce some future situation. → Part of OCD: Hoarding Disorder- involves compulsive collecting, poor organization skills, and difficulty discarding things, along with other cognitive deficits Excoriation- skin picking Trichotillomania- Hair picking  body dysmorphic disorder- involves a distressing preoccupation with imagined or slight flaws in one's physical appearance post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) Anxiety disorder that develops through exposure to a traumatic event, a severely oppressive situation, cruel abuse, or a natural or unnatural disaster. dissociative amnesia borderline personality disorder. disorder characterized by extreme memory loss that is caused by extensive psychological stress. Dissociative amnesia is a disorder in which the individual not only develops amnesia but also might unexpectedly travel away from home and assume a new identity. depressive disorders Mood disorders in which the individual suffers from depression—an unrelenting lack of pleasure in life. bipolar disorder Mood disorder characterized by extreme mood swings that include one or more episodes of mania, an overexcited, unrealistically optimistic state. anorexia nervosa Eating disorder that involves the relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation. bulimia nervosa Eating disorder in which an individual (typically female) consistently follows a binge-and-purge eating pattern. binge-eating disorder (BED) Eating disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of consuming large amounts of food during which the person feels a lack of control over eating. schizophrenia Severe psychological disorder characterized by highly disordered thought processes; individuals suffering from schizophrenia may be referred to as psychotic because they are so far removed from reality. hallucinations Sensory experiences that occur in the absence of real stimuli. delusions False, unusual, and sometimes magical beliefs that are not part of an individual’s culture. personality disorders Chronic, maladaptive cognitive-behavioral patterns that are thoroughly integrated into an individual’s personality. antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) Psychological disorder characterized by guiltlessness, law-breaking, exploitation of others, irresponsibility, and deceit. borderline personality disorder (BPD) Psychological disorder characterized by a pervasive pattern of instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, and emotions, and of marked impulsivity beginning by early adulthood and present in a variety of contexts.