AP Psychology Modules 60-64 PDF

‭‬ C ‭ rystallized‬‭intelligence:‬‭our‬‭accumulated‬‭knowledge‬‭as‬‭reflected‬‭in‬‭vocabulary‬‭and‬‭analogies‬ ‭tests‬‭increases‬‭up‬‭to‬‭old‬‭age‬ ‭‬ ‭Fluid‬‭intelligence:‬‭our‬‭ability‬‭to‬‭reason‬‭speedily‬‭and‬‭abstractly‬‭(e.g.,‬‭with‬‭logic‬‭pro...

‭‬ C ‭ rystallized‬‭intelligence:‬‭our‬‭accumulated‬‭knowledge‬‭as‬‭reflected‬‭in‬‭vocabulary‬‭and‬‭analogies‬ ‭tests‬‭increases‬‭up‬‭to‬‭old‬‭age‬ ‭‬ ‭Fluid‬‭intelligence:‬‭our‬‭ability‬‭to‬‭reason‬‭speedily‬‭and‬‭abstractly‬‭(e.g.,‬‭with‬‭logic‬‭problems)‬ ‭decreases‬‭beginning‬‭in‬‭our‬‭20s‬‭or‬‭30s‬ ‭‬ ‭As‬‭we‬‭age,‬‭fluid‬‭intelligence‬‭declines‬‭but‬‭crystallized‬‭intelligence‬‭increases‬‭and‬‭our‬‭ability‬‭to‬‭take‬ ‭multiple‬‭perspectives‬‭and‬‭offer‬‭wisdom‬‭increases‬‭(world‬‭power)‬ ‭‬ ‭Cross-sectional‬‭study:‬‭research‬‭that‬‭compares‬‭people‬‭of‬‭different‬‭ages‬‭at‬‭the‬‭same‬‭point‬‭in‬‭time‬ ‭‬ ‭Longitudinal‬‭study:‬‭research‬‭that‬‭follows‬‭and‬‭retests‬‭the‬‭same‬‭people‬‭over‬‭time‬ ‭‬ ‭People‬‭who‬‭survived‬‭the‬‭longest‬‭in‬‭these‬‭studies‬‭tended‬‭to‬‭be‬‭healthier‬‭and‬‭brighter‬‭(higher‬‭IQ)‬ ‭‬ ‭Fluid‬‭intelligence‬‭is‬‭at‬‭its‬‭peak‬‭in‬‭someone’s‬‭20s‬‭or‬‭30s‬‭(which‬‭is‬‭why‬‭writers‬‭and‬‭artists‬‭produce‬ ‭their‬‭best‬‭work‬‭at‬‭this‬‭time)‬ ‭Stability‬‭Over‬‭the‬‭Life‬‭Span:‬ ‭‬ ‭Observation‬‭and‬‭intelligence‬‭tests‬‭before‬‭the‬‭age‬‭of‬‭3‬‭aren’t‬‭great‬‭predictors‬‭of‬‭future‬‭aptitudes,‬ ‭but,‬‭by‬‭age‬‭4,‬‭intelligence‬‭tests‬‭begin‬‭to‬‭predict‬‭adolescent‬‭and‬‭adult‬‭scores‬ ‭‬ ‭The‬‭consistency‬‭of‬‭scores‬‭increases‬‭with‬‭the‬‭age‬‭of‬‭the‬‭child,‬‭and‬‭the‬‭stability‬‭is‬‭great‬‭by‬‭age‬‭11‬ ‭(Ian‬‭Deary)‬ ‭‬ ‭Ian‬‭Deary‬‭did‬‭an‬‭experiment‬‭in‬‭Scotland‬‭that‬‭found‬‭that‬‭the‬‭IQ‬‭at‬‭11‬‭was‬‭very‬‭similar‬‭to‬‭the‬‭IQ‬‭at‬ ‭80‬ ‭○‬ ‭Also,‬‭children‬ ‭and‬‭adults‬‭who‬‭are‬‭more‬‭intelligent‬‭tend‬‭to‬‭live‬‭healthier‬‭and‬‭longer‬‭lives‬ ‭○‬ ‭4‬‭reasons:‬‭more‬‭education‬‭&‬‭better‬‭jobs,‬‭encouragement‬‭to‬‭live‬‭healthier‬‭lives,‬‭prenatal‬ ‭events‬‭or‬‭childhood‬‭illnesses‬‭could‬‭have‬‭impacted‬‭intelligence‬‭and‬‭health,‬‭a‬‭well-wired‬ ‭body‬‭fosters‬‭intelligence‬‭and‬‭longevity‬ ‭Extremes‬‭of‬‭Intelligence:‬ ‭The‬‭Low‬‭Extreme:‬ ‭‬ ‭Intellectual‬‭disability‬‭is‬‭a‬‭developmental‬‭condition‬‭that‬‭is‬‭apparent‬‭before‬‭age‬‭18‬ ‭○‬ ‭Down‬‭Syndrome:‬‭a‬‭condition‬‭of‬‭mild‬‭to‬‭severe‬‭intellectual‬‭disability‬‭and‬‭associated‬ ‭physical‬‭disorders‬‭caused‬‭by‬‭an‬‭extra‬‭copy‬‭of‬‭chromosome‬‭21‬ ‭‬ ‭Intellectual‬‭disability:‬‭condition‬‭of‬‭limited‬‭mental‬‭ability,‬‭indicated‬‭by‬‭an‬‭intelligence‬‭score‬‭of‬‭70‬ ‭or‬‭below‬‭and‬‭difficulty‬‭adapting‬‭to‬‭the‬‭demands‬‭of‬‭life‬‭(in‬‭three‬‭areas:‬‭conceptual‬‭(language,‬ ‭reading,‬‭time,‬‭number),‬‭social‬‭(interpersonal‬‭skills,‬‭following‬‭rules‬‭and‬‭laws),‬‭and‬‭practical‬ ‭(health‬‭and‬‭personal‬‭care,‬‭travel,‬‭etc.))‬ ‭‬ ‭The‬‭Flynn‬‭effect‬‭can‬‭cause‬‭the‬‭boundary‬‭for‬‭the‬‭intellectual-disability‬‭test‬‭score‬‭to‬‭change‬ ‭○‬ ‭Can‬‭impact‬‭the‬‭quality‬‭of‬‭life‬‭for‬‭a‬‭person‬‭(can‬‭be‬‭exempted‬‭from‬‭the‬‭death‬‭penalty‬‭or‬‭be‬ ‭made‬‭eligible‬‭for‬‭special‬‭education/financial‬‭assistance)‬ ‭The‬‭High‬‭Extreme:‬ ‭‬ ‭Lewis‬‭Terman‬‭studied‬‭1500‬‭CA‬‭schoolchildren‬‭with‬‭IQ‬‭scores‬‭over‬‭135‬‭(lated‬‭called‬‭“Termites”),‬ ‭and‬‭most‬‭of‬‭them‬‭eventually‬‭attained‬‭high‬‭levels‬‭of‬‭education‬‭and‬‭were‬‭in‬‭high-paying‬ ‭professions‬ ‭‬ ‭But,‬‭labeling‬‭children‬‭as‬‭gifted‬‭and‬‭ungifted‬‭can‬‭lead‬‭to‬‭a‬‭self-fulfilling‬‭prophecy‬‭(can‬‭widen‬‭the‬ ‭achievement‬‭gap‬‭since‬‭groups‬‭live‬‭up‬‭to‬‭or‬‭down‬‭to‬‭expectations)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Tracking‬‭this‬‭can‬‭also‬‭promote‬‭segregation‬‭and‬‭predjudice,‬‭since‬‭low-income‬‭and‬ ‭minority‬‭students‬‭are‬‭often‬‭placed‬‭in‬‭ungifted‬‭groups‬ ‭‬ ‭Appropriate‬‭placement‬‭is‬‭the‬‭best!‬ ‭ odule‬‭63:‬‭Studying‬‭Genetic‬‭and‬‭Environmental‬‭Influences‬‭on‬ M ‭Intelligence‬ ‭Twin‬‭and‬‭Adoption‬‭Studies:‬ ‭‬ ‭People‬‭who‬‭share‬‭the‬‭same‬‭genes‬‭also‬‭share‬‭mental‬‭abilities‬ ‭‬ ‭Intelligence‬‭scores‬‭of‬‭identical‬‭twins‬‭raised‬‭together‬‭are‬‭nearly‬‭as‬‭similar‬‭as‬‭those‬‭of‬‭the‬‭same‬ ‭person‬‭taking‬‭the‬‭same‬‭test‬‭twice‬‭(fraternal‬‭twins‬‭varies‬‭more)‬ ‭○‬ ‭The‬‭heritability‬‭of‬‭intelligence‬‭(the‬‭extent‬‭to‬‭which‬‭intelligence‬‭test‬‭score‬‭variation‬‭within‬ ‭a‬‭group‬‭can‬‭be‬‭attributed‬‭to‬‭genetic‬‭variation)‬‭is‬‭between‬‭50‬‭to‬‭80‬‭percent‬ ‭○‬ ‭Identical‬‭twins‬‭also‬‭have‬‭very‬‭similar‬‭talents‬‭(e.g.,‬‭music,‬‭sports)‬ ‭‬ ‭Identical‬‭twins‬‭have‬‭similar‬‭gray‬‭and‬‭white‬‭matter‬‭volume‬‭and‬‭the‬‭areas‬‭associated‬‭with‬‭verbal‬ ‭and‬‭spatial‬‭intelligence‬‭are‬‭virtually‬‭identical‬‭(also‬‭show‬‭similar‬‭activity‬‭when‬‭doing‬‭mental‬ ‭tasks)‬ ‭‬ ‭Heritability‬‭definition:‬‭the‬‭proportion‬‭of‬‭variation‬‭among‬‭individuals‬‭in‬‭a‬‭group‬‭that‬‭we‬‭can‬ ‭attribute‬‭to‬‭genes.‬‭The‬‭heritability‬‭of‬‭a‬‭trait‬‭may‬‭vary,‬‭depending‬‭on‬‭the‬‭range‬‭of‬‭populations‬‭and‬ ‭environments‬‭studied‬ ‭‬ ‭Environments‬‭also‬‭impact‬‭intelligence:‬ ‭○‬ ‭Adoption‬‭enhances‬‭the‬‭intelligence‬‭scores‬‭of‬‭mistreated‬‭or‬‭neglected‬‭children‬‭(or‬‭from‬ ‭poverty‬‭into‬‭middle-class)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Same-age,‬‭unrelated‬‭siblings‬‭adopted‬‭as‬‭infants‬‭and‬‭raised‬‭together‬‭also‬‭have‬‭some‬ ‭intelligence‬‭correlation‬ ‭‬ ‭Adopted‬‭children’s‬‭intelligence‬‭test‬‭scores‬‭match‬‭more‬‭with‬‭their‬‭biological‬‭parents‬‭than‬‭with‬ ‭their‬‭adoptive‬‭parents‬ ‭‬ ‭Heritability‬‭of‬‭general‬‭intelligence‬‭increases‬‭into‬‭adulthood‬ ‭Environmental‬‭Influences:‬ ‭Early‬‭Environmental‬‭Influences:‬ ‭‬ ‭Extreme‬‭deprivation‬‭of‬‭response‬‭and‬‭care‬‭ruins‬‭native‬‭intelligence‬‭(discovered‬‭by‬‭J.‬‭McVicker‬ ‭Hunt)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Hunt‬‭began‬‭a‬‭training‬‭program‬‭for‬‭caregivers‬‭in‬‭Iran‬‭to‬‭teach‬‭them‬‭how‬‭to‬‭stimulate‬‭their‬ ⇒ ‭children‬‭ ‬‭improved‬‭intelligence‬‭by‬‭a‬‭lot‬ ‭‬ ‭Poor‬‭environmental‬‭conditions‬‭can‬‭depress‬‭cognitive‬‭development‬‭and‬‭poverty-related‬‭stresses‬ ‭can‬‭impede‬‭cognitive‬‭performance‬ ‭Schooling‬‭and‬‭Intelligence:‬ ‭‬ ‭Early‬‭Intervention:‬ ‭○‬ ‭Schooling‬‭and‬‭intelligence‬‭enhance‬‭later‬‭outcome‬ ‭○‬ ‭Education‬‭has‬‭the‬‭potential‬‭to‬‭boat‬‭children’s‬‭chances‬‭for‬‭success‬‭by‬‭developing‬‭their‬ ‭cognitive‬‭and‬‭social‬‭skills‬ ‭○‬ ‭However,‬‭aptitude‬‭benefits‬‭eventually‬‭fade‬‭away‬‭over‬‭time‬‭(Head‬‭Start‬‭program)‬ ‭○‬ ‭Intelligence‬‭scores‬‭also‬‭improve‬‭with‬‭nutritional‬‭supplements‬‭to‬‭pregnant‬‭mothers‬‭and‬ ‭newborns‬ ⇒ ‭○‬ ‭Epigenetics‬‭(genetics‬‭+‬‭experience)‬‭ ‬‭nature‬‭and‬‭nurture‬‭meeting‬‭place‬ ‭‬ ‭Growth‬‭Mindset:‬ ‭○‬ ‭Believing‬‭that‬‭intelligence‬‭is‬‭changeable‬‭leads‬‭to‬‭a‬‭growth‬‭mindset,‬‭and‬‭people‬‭with‬‭this‬ ‭mindset‬‭focus‬‭on‬‭learning‬‭and‬‭growing‬  ‭○‬ A ‭ lso,‬‭receiving‬‭praise‬‭for‬‭effort‬‭and‬‭tackling‬‭challenges‬‭rather‬‭than‬‭being‬‭smart‬‭or‬ ‭accomplished‬‭helps‬‭teens‬‭understand‬‭the‬‭link‬‭between‬‭hard‬‭work‬‭and‬‭success‬‭ ‬‭makes‬ ⇒ ‭them‬‭more‬‭resilient‬ ‭○‬ ‭Ability‬‭+‬‭opportunity‬‭+‬‭motivation‬‭=‬‭success‬ ‭○‬ ‭Low-income‬‭students‬‭with‬‭a‬‭growth‬‭mindset‬‭had‬‭test‬‭scores‬‭comparable‬‭to‬ ‭middle-income‬‭students‬‭with‬‭a‬‭fixed‬‭mindset‬ ‭Module‬‭64:‬‭Group‬‭Differences‬‭and‬‭the‬‭Question‬‭of‬‭Bias‬ ‭Group‬‭Differences‬‭in‬‭Intelligence‬‭Test‬‭Scores‬‭-‬‭Gender‬‭Similarities‬‭and‬‭Differences:‬ ‭‬ ‭Intelligence‬‭scores‬‭between‬‭men‬‭and‬‭women‬‭have‬‭very‬‭minor‬‭differences‬‭(‭g‬ ‬‭is‬‭basically‬‭the‬‭same)‬ ‭‬ ‭Girls‬‭outperform‬‭boys‬‭in‬‭spelling,‬‭verbal‬‭fluency,‬‭locating‬‭objects,‬‭etc.‬‭(ancestral‬‭mothers‬‭would‬ ‭have‬‭benefited‬‭more‬‭from‬‭an‬‭ability‬‭to‬‭memorize‬‭the‬‭location‬‭of‬‭plants,‬‭etc.)‬ ‭‬ ‭Boys‬‭outperform‬‭girls‬‭in‬‭spatial‬‭ability‬‭(geometry,‬‭fitting‬‭objects‬‭in‬‭a‬‭suitcase,‬‭and‬‭other‬‭tasks‬‭that‬ ‭would‬‭have‬‭helped‬‭our‬‭ancestral‬‭fathers‬‭track‬‭prey‬‭and‬‭make‬‭their‬‭way‬‭home)‬‭and‬‭complex‬‭math‬ ‭problem‬‭solving‬ ‭○‬ ‭Male’s‬‭mental‬‭abilities‬‭also‬‭generally‬‭vary‬‭more‬‭than‬‭female’s‬ ‭‬ ‭Steven‬‭Pinker‬‭argued‬‭that‬‭biology‬‭affects‬‭gender‬‭differences‬‭in‬‭life‬‭priorities‬‭(women‬‭have‬‭more‬ ‭interest‬‭in‬‭people,‬‭and‬‭men‬‭have‬‭more‬‭interest‬‭in‬‭money‬‭and‬‭things),‬‭risk-taking‬‭(men‬‭are‬‭more‬ ‭reckless),‬‭and‬‭in‬‭math‬‭reasoning‬‭and‬‭spatial‬‭abilities‬ ‭‬ ‭Social‬‭influences‬‭construct‬‭gender:‬‭cultural‬‭influences‬‭explain‬‭why‬‭American‬‭women‬‭avoid‬ ‭math-related‬‭professions‬ ‭‬ ‭Boys‬‭are‬‭more‬‭likely‬‭to‬‭be‬‭represented‬‭among‬‭those‬‭scoring‬‭extremely‬‭low‬‭as‬‭well‬‭as‬‭those‬ ‭scoring‬‭extremely‬‭high‬‭on‬‭tests‬‭of‬‭mental‬‭abilities.‬ ‭Group‬‭Differences‬‭in‬‭Intelligence‬‭Test‬‭Scores‬‭-‬‭Racial‬‭and‬‭Ethnic‬‭Similarities‬‭and‬‭Differences:‬ ‭‬ ‭Racial‬‭and‬‭ethnic‬‭groups‬‭differ‬‭in‬‭their‬‭average‬‭intelligence‬‭scores‬‭(but‬‭the‬‭average‬‭doesn’t‬ ‭determine‬‭the‬‭difference‬‭between‬‭specific‬‭people)‬ ‭‬ ‭A‬‭type‬‭of‬‭intelligence‬‭test‬‭might‬‭be‬‭easier‬‭for‬‭people‬‭of‬‭some‬‭cultural‬‭backgrounds‬‭over‬‭people‬ ‭from‬‭other‬‭cultural‬‭backgrounds‬ ‭‬ ‭Individual‬‭differences‬‭might‬‭be‬‭genetic,‬‭but‬‭group‬‭differences‬‭are‬‭not‬ ‭‬ ‭Over‬‭time,‬‭gaps‬‭between‬‭racial‬‭groups‬‭have‬‭decreased;‬‭also,‬‭when‬‭provided‬‭with‬‭the‬‭same‬ ‭education,‬‭people‬‭of‬‭different‬‭racial‬‭groups‬‭are‬‭almost‬‭the‬‭same‬ ‭‬ ‭Schools‬‭and‬‭culture‬‭matter‬‭a‬‭lot:‬‭poor‬‭people‬‭have‬‭lower‬‭intelligence‬‭test‬‭scores‬‭than‬‭rich‬‭people‬ ‭The‬‭Question‬‭of‬‭Bias:‬ ‭Two‬‭Meanings‬‭of‬‭Bias:‬ ‭‬ ‭Bias‬‭means‬‭whether‬‭or‬‭not‬‭a‬‭test‬‭is‬‭valid‬‭(e.g.,‬‭if‬‭the‬‭SAT‬‭is‬‭a‬‭good‬‭predictor‬‭of‬‭women’s‬‭aptitude‬ ‭but‬‭not‬‭men’s‬‭aptitude)‬ ‭‬ ‭A‬‭test‬‭is‬‭biased‬‭if‬‭it‬‭detects‬‭not‬‭only‬‭innate‬‭differences‬‭in‬‭intelligence‬‭but‬‭also‬‭performance‬ ‭differences‬‭caused‬‭by‬‭cultural‬‭experiences‬ ‭○‬ ‭Immigrants‬‭in‬‭the‬‭early‬‭1900s‬‭were‬‭labeled‬‭dumb‬‭because‬‭they‬‭were‬‭unable‬‭to‬‭answer‬ ‭questions‬‭about‬‭their‬‭new‬‭culture‬ ‭‬ ‭Intelligence‬‭researchers‬‭suggest‬‭that‬‭test-makers‬‭create‬‭culture-neutral‬‭questions‬‭(culture-fair‬ ‭attitude)‬ ‭‬ ‭Defenders‬‭of‬‭existing‬‭intelligence‬‭tests‬‭note‬‭that‬‭racial‬‭group‬‭differences‬‭persist‬‭on‬‭nonverbal‬ ‭items‬‭and‬‭that‬‭blaming‬‭a‬‭test‬‭for‬‭a‬‭group’s‬‭lower‬‭scores‬‭is‬‭like‬‭blaming‬‭a‬‭messenger‬‭for‬‭bad‬‭news‬ ‭Test-Taker’s‬‭Expectations:‬ ‭‬ ‭Steven‬‭Spencer‬‭gave‬‭a‬‭difficult‬‭math‬‭test‬‭to‬‭men‬‭and‬‭women‬‭and‬‭found‬‭that‬‭women‬‭did‬‭worse,‬ ‭except‬‭when‬‭they‬‭had‬‭been‬‭led‬‭to‬‭expect‬‭that‬‭women‬‭usually‬‭do‬‭as‬‭well‬‭as‬‭men‬‭on‬‭the‬‭test‬ ‭‬ ‭Expectations‬‭affected‬‭performance‬ ‭‬ ‭Stereotype‬‭threat:‬‭a‬‭self-confirming‬‭concern‬‭that‬‭one‬‭will‬‭be‬‭evaluated‬‭based‬‭on‬‭a‬‭negative‬ ‭stereotype‬ ‭○‬ ‭Knowing‬‭a‬‭negative‬‭stereotype‬‭can‬‭causes‬‭distraction‬‭and‬‭worry,‬‭which‬‭can‬‭negatively‬ ‭impact‬‭performance‬