Psych Quiz 4 Notes PDF

Psychological Disorders Definition: ​ Mental disorders are patterns of behavior, thought, or emotion that are significantly deviant, distressing, and dysfunctional. ​ DSM-5-TR: ○​ Diagnoses require symptoms to cause clinically significant distress or impairment. ○​...

Psychological Disorders Definition: ​ Mental disorders are patterns of behavior, thought, or emotion that are significantly deviant, distressing, and dysfunctional. ​ DSM-5-TR: ○​ Diagnoses require symptoms to cause clinically significant distress or impairment. ○​ Disorders are categorized by symptom clusters, with cultural considerations to avoid misdiagnoses (e.g., culturally bound syndromes like ataque de nervios in Latin cultures). Key Disorders: 1.​ Schizophrenia: ○​ Symptoms: ​ Positive: Hallucinations (e.g., auditory voices), delusions (e.g., persecutory or grandiose beliefs), disorganized speech and behavior. ​ Negative: Affective flattening (diminished emotional expression), anhedonia (loss of pleasure), social withdrawal. ​ Cognitive Deficits: Impaired attention, memory, and executive functioning. ○​ Etiology: ​ Genetic predisposition: High concordance rates in identical twins (~50%). ​ Neurochemical: Excess dopamine activity in mesolimbic pathways, reduced dopamine in prefrontal regions. ​ Neuroanatomical: Enlarged ventricles, hypofrontality (reduced frontal lobe activity). ○​ Prevalence: Affects ~1% of the population, with onset typically in late adolescence or early adulthood. 2.​ Mood Disorders: ○​ Major Depressive Disorder: ​ Symptoms must last at least two weeks, including depressed mood and anhedonia. ​ Biological correlates: Low serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine levels; hyperactivity of the HPA axis leading to elevated cortisol. ​ Psychological factors: Negative attributional style, learned helplessness. ​ Sociocultural influences: Higher prevalence in women, potentially due to social roles and hormonal differences. ○​ Bipolar Disorder: ​ Bipolar I: Full manic episodes; Bipolar II: Hypomanic episodes with depressive episodes.  ​ Manic Symptoms: Increased energy, reduced need for sleep, grandiosity, impulsivity. ​ Neurobiological: Dysregulation of calcium ion channels and circadian rhythms. 3.​ Anxiety Disorders: ○​ Panic Disorder: ​ Characterized by recurrent, unexpected panic attacks. ​ Symptoms peak within minutes (e.g., palpitations, chest pain, derealization). ​ Neurobiology: Overactivation of the fear network (amygdala, brainstem) with insufficient inhibition from the prefrontal cortex. ○​ Specific Phobias: ​ Intense, irrational fear of specific stimuli (e.g., spiders, heights). ​ Learned through classical conditioning (e.g., Little Albert experiment) or observational learning. ​ Treated effectively with exposure therapy. ○​ Social Anxiety Disorder: ​ Persistent fear of negative evaluation in social/performance situations. ​ Cultural forms include taijin kyofusho in Japan (fear of offending others). 4.​ Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD): ○​ Obsessions: Repeated intrusive thoughts (e.g., contamination, harm to loved ones). ○​ Compulsions: Ritualistic behaviors (e.g., hand washing, checking locks) that reduce anxiety. ○​ Biological basis: Dysfunction in cortico-striatal-thalamic circuits; increased activity in the orbitofrontal cortex and caudate nucleus. Treatments for Psychological Disorders Biological Treatments: 1.​ Medications: ○​ Antipsychotics: ​ First-generation (typical): Target dopamine D2 receptors; effective for positive symptoms of schizophrenia but cause extrapyramidal side effects. ​ Second-generation (atypical): Act on dopamine and serotonin pathways; reduce both positive and negative symptoms with fewer motor side effects. ○​ Antidepressants: ​ SSRIs: Increase serotonin availability (e.g., fluoxetine). ​ SNRIs: Enhance serotonin and norepinephrine levels.  ​ Atypical agents: Bupropion (Wellbutrin) affects dopamine and norepinephrine. ​ Side effects: Sexual dysfunction, weight gain, gastrointestinal issues. ○​ Mood Stabilizers: ​ Lithium: Effective for mania and depression in bipolar disorder. ​ Anticonvulsants: Valproate and lamotrigine regulate mood. 2.​ Brain Stimulation Techniques: ○​ ECT: Used for severe depression unresponsive to other treatments. Modern procedures reduce risks. ○​ TMS: Non-invasive; uses magnetic fields to stimulate specific brain regions. ○​ DBS: Invasive procedure targeting deep brain regions; experimental for severe OCD and depression. Psychotherapies: 1.​ Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT): ○​ Addresses dysfunctional thought patterns (e.g., catastrophizing, overgeneralization). ○​ Behavioral techniques (e.g., graded exposure) help desensitize fears. 2.​ Humanistic Therapy: ○​ Focus on self-growth and achieving congruence between the real and ideal self. ○​ Therapist provides empathy, unconditional positive regard, and authenticity. 3.​ Psychoanalysis and Psychodynamic Therapy: ○​ Emphasis on unconscious conflicts and early childhood experiences. ○​ Techniques include free association and transference analysis. Personality Theories of Personality: 1.​ Psychodynamic Theories: ○​ Freud’s Structural Model: ​ Id: Instinctual drives (pleasure principle). ​ Ego: Balances id and superego (reality principle). ​ Superego: Moral conscience derived from societal norms. ○​ Defense Mechanisms: ​ Repression: Blocking distressing memories from awareness. ​ Projection: Attributing one’s own unacceptable traits to others. ​ Sublimation: Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities. 2.​ Trait Theories: ○​ Big Five Model: ​ Openness: Creativity, curiosity, imagination.  ​ Conscientiousness: Organization, responsibility, dependability. ​ Extraversion: Sociability, assertiveness, enthusiasm. ​ Agreeableness: Empathy, cooperation, trustworthiness. ​ Neuroticism: Emotional instability, anxiety, moodiness. Assessment Methods: ​ Objective Tests: ○​ MMPI: Measures psychopathology and personality traits. ○​ NEO Personality Inventory: Assesses Big Five traits. ​ Projective Tests: ○​ Rorschach Inkblot Test: Interprets responses to ambiguous stimuli to uncover unconscious processes. ○​ Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): Examines narratives created about ambiguous images to infer motives, conflicts, and personality dynamics. Cultural and Environmental Influences: ​ Individualism vs. Collectivism: ○​ Individualistic cultures prioritize independence and self-expression. ○​ Collectivist cultures emphasize group harmony and interconnectedness. ​ Reciprocal Determinism (Bandura): ○​ Personality is shaped by interactions between behavior, cognitive factors, and environmental influences.