Psychological Disorders PDF

Psychological Disorders What is Psychological or Mental Disorder? Psychological or Mental Disorder, or mental disorder, is “a syndrome characterized by clinically significant dysfunction, distress and atypical. Mental disorders are usually associa...

Psychological Disorders What is Psychological or Mental Disorder? Psychological or Mental Disorder, or mental disorder, is “a syndrome characterized by clinically significant dysfunction, distress and atypical. Mental disorders are usually associated with significant distress in social, occupational, or other important activities. Psychopathology is the study of psychological disorders, including their symptoms, etiology (causes), and treatment  The American Psychiatric Association (APA) Definition There are significant The disturbances reflect The disturbances lead to The disturbances do not disturbances in thoughts, some kind of biological, significant distress or reflect expected or feelings, and behaviors. psychological, or disability in one’s life. culturally approved developmental responses to certain dysfunction events. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) is the handbook used by health care professionals in the United States and much of the world as the authoritative guide to the diagnosis of mental disorders.  The Compassionate View of Psychological Disorders First, remember that psychological Second, understand that people with disorders represent extremes of inner psychological disorders are far more experience and behavior. They are than just embodiments of their thoughts and behaviors that are disorders. Psychological disorder is not extreme and disruptive what a person is; it is something that a person has—through no fault of their own.  Anxiety Disorders Anxiety disorders are characterized by excessive and persistent fear and anxiety, and by related disturbances in behavior Social Anxiety Disorder Phobia SAD (formerly called social phobia) is characterized by extreme A person diagnosed with a specific phobia (formerly known as and persistent fear or anxiety and avoidance of social situations in simple phobia) experiences excessive, distressing, and persistent which the person could potentially be evaluated negatively by fear or anxiety about a specific object or situation (such as others animals, enclosed spaces, elevators, or flying). Panic Disorder Generalized Anxiety Disorder A panic attack is defined as a period of extreme fear or discomfort A relatively continuous state of excessive, uncontrollable, and that develops abruptly and reaches a peak within 10 minutes pointless worry and apprehension. People with generalized anxiety including but not limited to increase heart rate, sweating, disorder often worry about routine, everyday things, even though dizziness, fear of dying. their concerns are unjustified.  Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders e a group of overlapping disorders that generally involve intrusive, unpleasant thoughts and repetitive behaviors. Obsessive-Compulsive Body Dysmorphic Disorder Hoarding Disorder Disorder Preoccupied with a perceived flaw in Individuals can't bear to part with Thoughts and urges that are intrusive physical appearance that is either personal possessions, regardless of and unwanted (obsessions) and/or the nonexistent or barely noticeable to how valueless or useless these need to engage in repetitive behaviors other people possessions are. or mental acts (compulsions). Compulsions are repetitive and ritualistic acts that are typically carried out primarily as a means to minimize the distress that obsessions trigger or to reduce the likelihood of a feared event  Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Unwanted and recurring memories, flashbacks, or vivid nightmares Details of PTSD PTSD was previously listed among anxiety disorders and now listed to group called Trauma-and-Stressors-Related Disorders. For a person to be diagnosed with PTSD, they must be exposed to, witness, or experience the details of a traumatic experience (e.g., a first responder), one that involves “actual or threatened death, serious injury, or sexual violence” Symptoms of PTSD include intrusive and distressing memories of the event, flashbacks (states that can last from a few seconds to several days, during which the individual relives the event and behaves as if the event were occurring at that moment [APA, 2013]), avoidance of stimuli connected to the event, persistently negative emotional states (e.g., fear, anger, guilt, and shame), feelings of detachment from others, irritability, proneness toward outbursts, and an exaggerated startle response (jumpiness). For PTSD to be diagnosed, these symptoms must occur for at least one month.  Mood and Related Disorders severe disturbances in mood and emotion including depression, mania and elation. Depression Mania Depression is a vague term that, in everyday Mania is a state of extreme elation and agitation. language, refers to an intense and persistent When people experience mania, they may become sadness. Depression is a heterogeneous mood state extremely talkative, behave recklessly, or attempt to —it consists of a broad spectrum of symptoms that take on many tasks simultaneously. The most range in severity. Depressed people feel sad, recognized of these disorders is bipolar disorder. discouraged, and hopeless. These individuals lose interest in activities once enjoyed, often experience a decrease in drives such as hunger and sex, and frequently doubt personal worth.  MRD: Major Depressive Disorder Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is characterized by "depressed mood most of the day, nearly every day" (feeling sad, empty, hopeless, or appearing tearful) and loss of interest or pleasure in usual activities. Symptoms are as follows Significant weight or appetite changes Sleep disturbances (difficulty sleeping or oversleeping) Psychomotor agitation or retardation Fatigue or energy loss Feelings of worthlessness or guilt Difficulty concentrating or indecisiveness Suicidal ideation (thoughts, plans, or attempts) Subtypes: 1. Seasonal Pattern, 2. Peripartum Onset (Postpartum), 3. Persistent Depressive Disorder  MRD: Bipolar Disorder Bipolar Disorder A person with bipolar disorder (commonly known as manic depression) often experiences mood states that vacillate between depression and mania; that is, the person’s mood is said to alternate from one emotional extreme to the other. Manic episode is characterized as a “distinct period of abnormally and persistently elevated, expansive, or irritable mood and abnormally and persistently increased activity or energy lasting. DIGFAST Distractibility, Impulsivity, Grandiosity, Flight of Ideas, Sleep Deficit, Talkativeness  MRD: Schizophrenia Schizophrenia Schizophrenia is considered a psychotic disorder, or one in which the person’s thoughts, perceptions, and behaviors are impaired to the point where they are not able to function normally in life. In informal terms, one who suffers from a psychotic disorder (that is, has a psychosis) is disconnected from the world in which most of us live.  Symptoms of Schizophrenia Hallucination (Perceptual Disorganized thinking Negative experience lacking (jump from topic to topic, symptoms diminished absence of stimuli) disorganized and emotional expression incomprehensible ) shows no emotion in their facial expressions, Delusions (beliefs that speech, or movements, are contrary to reality and Disorganized or even when such are firmly held) i.e. Abnormal Motor expressions are normal or paranoid, grandiose, Behavior (Catatonic) expected. somatic.  Dissociative Disorders Dissociative disorders are characterized by an individual becoming split off, or dissociated, from their core sense of self. Dissociative Amnesia Depersonalization/Derealization Dissociative Identity Disorder unable to recall important personal Recurring episodes of depersonalization, People with dissociative identity information, usually following an extremely derealization, or both. Depersonalization disorder exhibit two or more stressful or traumatic experience such as involves feelings of detachment from oneself, combat, natural disasters, or being the victim such as thoughts and actions feeling robotic or distinct personalities and of violence. an “out-of-body” experience. Derealization experience memory gaps during refers to detachment from the world, feeling shifts in identity, such as finding like the surroundings are unreal or dreamlike. unfamiliar items or hearing voices like a child’s or someone crying  Disorders in Childhood developmental problems in personal, social, academic, and intellectual functioning. Often diagnosed in childhood, they may persist into adulthood. Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Autism Spectrum Disorder ADHD symptoms include inattention (difficulty Autism spectrum disorder includes problems with sustaining attention, failure to follow instructions, social interaction (e.g., no eye contact, preferring to disorganization, distractibility, and forgetfulness) and be alone), communication (e.g., little speech, echoed hyperactivity/impulsivity (excessive movement, words, trouble with nonverbal cues), and repetitive fidgeting, trouble sitting still, blurting out responses, behaviors or interests (e.g., rocking, head-banging, difficulty waiting turns, interrupting, and being noisy distress at changes). Symptoms start early, cause or boisterous). major issues, and are not due to intellectual disability  Personality Disorders developmental problems in personal, social, academic, and intellectual functioning. Often diagnosed in childhood, they may persist into adulthood. Characteristics Personality disorders involve enduring personality traits that differ sharply from cultural expectations, begin in adolescence or early adulthood, and cause distress or impairment (APA, 2013). These traits often lead to conflicts with others, difficulty forming relationships, and hindered life goals. Cluster A includes paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders, characterized by odd or eccentric behavior Cluster B includes antisocial, histrionic, narcissistic, and borderline personality disorders, marked by impulsivity, emotionality, and erratic behavior. Cluster C includes avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders (distinct from obsessive-compulsive disorder), often involving nervousness and fearfulness.  Cluster A Paranoid Schizotypal Schizoid Harbors a pervasive and exhibits eccentricities in thought, lacks interest and desire to form unjustifiable suspiciousness perception, emotion, speech, and relationships with others; aloof and mistrust of others; reluctant behavior; shows suspiciousness and shows emotional coldness to confide in or become close to or paranoia; has unusual and detachment; indifferent to others; reads hidden demeaning perceptual experiences; speech approval or criticism of others; or threatening meaning into is often idiosyncratic; displays lacks close friends or confidants; benign remarks or events; takes inappropriate emotions; lacks not due to schizophrenia or other offense easily and bears friends or confidants; not due to psychotic disorders, not an grudges; not due to schizophrenia or other psychotic autism spectrum disorder schizophrenia or other psychotic disorder, or to autism spectrum disorders disorder  Cluster B Antisocial Histrionic continuously violates the rights of others; history of antisocial tendencies excessively overdramatic, emotional, and theatrical; feels uncomfortable prior to age 15; often lies, fights, and has problems with the law; impulsive when not the center of others’ attention; behavior is often inappropriately and fails to think ahead; can be deceitful and manipulative in order to gain seductive or provocative; speech is highly emotional but often vague and profit or pleasure; irresponsible and often fails to hold down a job or pay diffuse; emotions are shallow and often shift rapidly; may alienate friends financial debts; lacks feelings for others and remorse over misdeeds with demands for constant attention Narcissistic Borderline overinflated and unjustified sense of self-importance and preoccupied with unstable in self-image, mood, and behavior; cannot tolerate being alone and fantasies of success; believes they are entitled to special treatment from experiences chronic feelings of emptiness; unstable and intense others; shows arrogant attitudes and behaviors; takes advantage of others; relationships with others; behavior is impulsive, unpredictable, and lacks empathy sometimes self-damaging; shows inappropriate and intense anger; makes suicidal gestures  Cluster C Avoidant Dependent Obsessive-Compulsive socially inhibited and oversensitive allows others to take over and run pervasive need for perfectionism to negative evaluation; avoids their life; is submissive, clingy, and that interferes with the ability to occupations that involve fears separation; cannot make complete tasks; preoccupied with interpersonal contact because of decisions without advice and details, rules, order, and schedules; fears of criticism or rejection; reassurance from others; lacks excessively devoted to work at the avoids relationships with others self-confidence; cannot do things expense of leisure and friendships; unless guaranteed to be accepted on their own; feels uncomfortable rigid, inflexible, and stubborn; unconditionally; feels inadequate or helpless when alone insists things be done their way; and views self as socially inept reluctant to spend money and unappealing; unwilling to take risks or engage in new activities if they may prove embarrassing Treatment of Psychological Disorders History wasn't kind to people with mental disorders It was commonly believed that mental illness stemmed from demonic possession, witchcraft, or an angry god. Medieval treatment involved incantations, prayers, and medicinal drinks performed by religious figures, and trephining, where a hole was drilled into the skull to release spirits, often resulting in death. By the 18th century, individuals considered odd or unusual were confined to asylums, the first institutions designed to house people with psychological disorders. However, the primary goal of asylums was to ostracize these individuals from society rather than provide treatment. 2 Types of Treatments Some individuals attend therapy involuntarily, such as when mandated by the criminal justice system as a condition of parole. Involuntary treatment refers to therapy that is not the individual's choice. Others voluntarily seek treatment to relieve symptoms, choosing to attend therapy on their own. Therapy includes psychotherapy and biomedical therapy, both addressing mental health issues like depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia. Psychotherapy uses psychological methods to help individuals overcome problems or achieve personal growth and has evolved into psychodynamic therapy. Biomedical therapy involves medication or medical procedures to treat psychological disorders. Various psychotherapeutic orientations will be explored next. 3 Psychotherapy and Biomedical (Pharmacotherapy) Therapy includes psychotherapy and biomedical therapy, both addressing mental health issues like depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia. Psychotherapy uses psychological methods to help individuals overcome problems or achieve personal growth and has evolved into psychodynamic therapy. Biomedical therapy involves medication or medical procedures to treat psychological disorders. Various psychotherapeutic orientations will be explored next. 4  Types of Psychotherapy Techniques Psychodynamic/Psychoanalysis Play Therapy Behavior Therapy Talk therapy based on belief that the unconscious and Psychoanalytical therapy wherein interaction with toys Principles of learning applied to change undesirable childhood conflicts impact behavior. Free Association, is used instead of talk; used in child therapy. This behaviors. Counter conditioning (aversive, and Dream Analysis, Transference. approach is also used along psychodynamic for exposure using systematic desensitization) children. i.e. Patient talks about their past i.e. Patient learns to overcome fear of elevators through i.e. Patient (child) acts out family scenes with dolls several stages of relaxation techniques Cognitive Therapy Cognitive Behavioral Therapy Humanistic Therapy Awareness of cognitive process helps patients Work to change cognitive distortions and self- Increase self-awareness and acceptance through focus eliminate thought patterns that lead to distress. defeating behaviors. Examining how thoughts affect on conscious thoughts. Nondirective which means behavior. It aims to change cognitive distortions and therapist do not give advice or interpretation but helps i.e. Patient learns not to overgeneralize failure based on self-defeating behaviors identify conflicts and understand feelings. (Client- single failure Centered by Rogers) i.e. Patient learns to identify self-defeating behaviors to overcome an eating disorder i.e. Patient learns to articulate thoughts that keep them from achieving their goals 5  Biomedical (Pharmacotherapy) Part 1 Type of Brand Name Target Mechanism Side Effects Medication Long-term use can lead Schizophrenia Haldol: Haloperidol Treat positive psychotic to tardive dyskinesia, and other Mellaril: Thioridazine symptoms such as auditory and involuntary movements Antipsychotics types of Prolixin: Fluphenazine visual hallucinations, delusions, of the arms, legs, (1950s) severe Thorazine: and paranoia by blocking the tongue and facial thought Chlorpromazine neurotransmitter dopamine muscles, resulting in disorders Parkinson’s-like tremors Can increase the risk of Treat the negative symptoms of Schizophrenia obesity and diabetes as schizophrenia, such as Atypical and other Abilify: Aripiprazole withdrawal and apathy, by well as elevate Antipsychotics types of cholesterol levels; Risperdal: Risperidone targeting both dopamine and (late severe constipation, dry mouth, Clozaril: Clozapine serotonin receptors; newer 1980s) thought blurred vision, medications may treat both disorders drowsiness, and positive and negative symptoms dizziness 6  Biomedical (Pharmacotherapy) Part 2 Type of Brand Name Target Mechanism Side Effects Medication SSRIs: headache, SSRI nausea, weight gain, Paxil: Paroxetine drowsiness, reduced Depression Alter levels of Prozac: Fluoxetine sex drive Antidepressants and Zoloft: Sertraline neurotransmitters Tricyclics: dry mouth, increasingly such as serotonin and Tricyclics constipation, blurred for anxiety norepinephrine Tofranil: Imipramine vision, drowsiness, Elavil: Amitriptyline reduced sex drive, increased risk of suicide Anxiety and Benzodiazepine agitation that Xanax: Alprazolam Depress central nervous Drowsiness, dizziness, Anti-anxiety occur in OCD, Valium: Diazepam system headache, fatigue, agents PTSD, panic Ativan: Lorazepam activity lightheadedness disorder, and Non-Benzodiazepine social phobia Buspar: Buspirone 7  Biomedical (Pharmacotherapy) Part 3 Type of Brand Name Target Mechanism Side Effects Medication Excessive thirst, irregular heartbeat, Lithium, Mood Bipolar Treat episodes of mania as well itching/rash, swelling Depakote, Stabilizers Disorder as depression (face, mouth, and Lamictal, Tegretol extremities), nausea, loss of appetite Adderall: Decreased appetite, Stimulants ADHD Amphetamine/Dextroamphetamine Improve ability to focus on a difficulty sleeping, task and maintain attention Ritalin: Methylphenidate stomachache, headache Scalp discomfort, Electroconvulsive Severe depression (especially when headaches, ECT (Electroshock Therapy) Therapy unresponsive to drug therapy) lightheadedness, and, in rare cases, seizures 8  Treament Modalities During intake, the therapist's first meeting with the client, they assess clinical needs, discuss the presenting problem, support system, insurance, fees, and confidentiality. Confidentiality ensures private information is not shared unless legally required. Individual Therapy Group Therapy Couples Therapy Family Therapy 9 Stress, Coping, and Health What is Stress? Stress is viewed as a process where an individual perceives and responds to events they see as overwhelming or threatening. Key to this is how we appraise ( judge) stressors. Primary appraisal involves assessing the potential harm or threat a stressor may cause. If a stressor is perceived as threatening, it triggers secondary appraisal, where the individual evaluates available coping options and their effectiveness. Self-efficacy, or belief in one's ability to handle a task, influences this appraisal. A stressor is seen as a threat if it’s expected to cause harm, while it’s viewed as a challenge if it offers potential for growth.  Appraisal Model Stressor Primary Appraisal Challenge Threat Potential for Gain or Growth May lead to harm, loss, or negative consequences Secondary Appraisal Options and How Effective Low Threat (effective High Threat (ineffective or no options) options)  General Adaptation Syndrome body’s nonspecific physiological response to stress. 1. Alarm reaction 2. Stage of Resistance 3. Stage of exhaustion the body’s immediate reaction If exposure to a stressor is If exposure to a stressor upon facing a threatening prolonged, the organism will continues over a longer period situation or emergency, and it is enter the stage of resistance. of time, the stage of exhaustion roughly analogous to the fight- During this stage, the initial ensues. At this stage, the person or-flight.. During an alarm shock of alarm reaction has is no longer able to adapt to the reaction, you are alerted to a worn off and the body has stressor: the body’s ability to stressor, and your body alarms adapted to the stressor. resist becomes depleted as you with a cascade of Nevertheless, the body also physical wear takes its toll on physiological reactions that remains on alert and is prepared the body’s tissues and organs. As provide you with the energy to to respond as it did during the a result, illness, disease, and manage the situation alarm reaction, although with other permanent damage to the less intensity body—even death—may occur  Stressors Chronic (extended period) Chronic (Focal Events) Traumatic Events Life Changes Hassles Occupation-Related exposure to actual or events or situations requiring minor irritations and Stressors threatened death or injury change annoyances Job strain and burnout  Stress and Illness Psychophysiological Disorders Depression and Heart Physical disorders or diseases whose symptoms are brought about death rates from cardiovascular problems was substantially higher or worsened by stress and emotional factors. in depressed people with women at higher risk. Stress and Immune System & Asthma Immunosuppression Exposure to stressful experiences, particularly those that involve Immune system is the body's surveillance system. parental or interpersonal conflicts, has been linked to the Immunosuppression is the decreased effectiveness of the immune development of asthma throughout the lifespan. system. Headaches Psychoneuroimmunology. Although there is uncertainty regarding the exact mechanisms field that studies how psychological factors such as stress influence through which stress can produce tension headaches, stress has the immune system and immune functioning. Studies has shown been demonstrated to increase sensitivity to pain stress to decrease immune system function. Cardiovascular Disorders i.e. heart disease Type A (intensively driven workaholics) are more likely to develop heart disease agains Type B (laid back) individuals.  Regulation of Stress Coping Styles Problem focused - managing or altering the problem that is causing stress Emotion focused - efforts to change or reduce the negative emotions associated with stress Control and Stress Perceived control is our beliefs about our personal capacity to exert influence over and shape outcomes. Social Support Social support can be thought of as the soothing impact of friends, family, and acquaintances. i.e. advice, guidance, encouragement, acceptance, emotional comfort, and tangible assistance  Stress Reduction Techniques Exercise Meditation & Relaxation Biofeedback Sit comfortably with feet on the ground, alternative therapy that helps you take eyes closed, repeat a calming mantra, and control of certain involuntary bodily focus on pleasant thoughts. functions, like your heart rate and breathing.  Happiness The definition of happiness differs depending on individual perspectives. Some view it as spiritual fulfillment, others as contentment from life satisfaction, and still others as engaging in meaningful, rewarding activities. Elements of Happiness The pleasant life is achieved through daily pleasures, like evening walks or a fulfilling sex life. The good life comes from using unique skills and talents, often found in work or recreation. The meaningful life is a sense of fulfillment from using talents to benefit others or improve the world. Factors Connected to Happiness Family and Social relationships appear to correlate with happiness. Higher income that allows individuals to travel and live comfortable - however higher income may impair people to enjoy small things. Other factors include Education and Employment, Religiosity, and Culture.  Positive Psychology Positive Psychology - Is the science of happiness. It is an area that seeks to identify and promote factors leading to greater fulfillment in our lives. This field looks at people’s strengths and what helps individuals to lead happy, contented lives, and it moves away from focusing on people’s pathology, faults, and problems. Positive Affect - refers to pleasurable engagement with the environment, such as happiness, joy, enthusiasm, alertness, and excitement Optimism - the general tendency to look on the bright side of things. Flow - a particular experience that is engaging and engrossing which becomes worth doing. This occurs when people are engaged in challenging activities that require skills and knowledge they know they possess. Motivation  Motivation Motivation describes the wants or needs that direct behavior toward a goal. Intrinsic Extrinsic From within i.e. mastery, sense of From outside i.e. praise, rewards (money, food) accomplishment, personal growth Drive Theory According to the drive theory of motivation, deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs. These needs result in psychological drive states that direct behavior to meet the need and, ultimately, bring the system back to homeostasis. , drive theory also emphasizes the role that habits play in the type of behavioral response in which we engage. A habit is a pattern of behavior in which we regularly engage. Once we have engaged in a behavior that successfully reduces a drive, we are more likely to engage in that behavior whenever faced with that drive in the future Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s ability to complete tasks, shaped by past successes in similar efforts. Albert Bandura (1994) emphasized its role in motivating behavior, asserting that motivation stems from our expectations of outcomes and confidence in our capacity to act. For instance, believing in your ability to succeed increases your likelihood of tackling challenges and persisting despite setbacks.  Hunger and Eating Physiological Metabolism and Body Obesity Mechanisms Weight Overweight and obesity are Hunger and satiation are Body weight is influenced by determined by BMI, with a BMI of 25–29.9 classified as overweight regulated by physiological gene-environment interactions, mechanisms. When blood glucose caloric balance, activity levels, and and 30+ as obese, though BMI has limitations as it doesn't account drops, the stomach, pancreas, and metabolic rate, which varies liver send signals to trigger among individuals. The set-point for fitness or body composition. hunger, while rising glucose and theory suggests each person has a Obesity is linked to serious health risks, influenced by factors like hormones like leptin signal genetically determined ideal fullness. The brain, particularly the weight that resists change genes, socioeconomic status, and environment, and in severe cases, hypothalamus, integrates these through adjustments in energy signals to control feeding use, though it doesn't fully bariatric surgery may be recommended for weight behavior. account for social and reduction. environmental factors. Despite its limitations, it remains a common explanation for weight regulation.  Hunger and Eating: Eating Disorders Bulimia Nervosa Binge Eating Disorder Anorexia Nervosa Characterized by binge eating Involves episodes of overeating (Distorted Body Image) followed by compensatory without purging but Marked by extreme weight loss behaviors like vomiting or accompanied by guilt and through starvation or excessive exercise, bulimia is distress, differentiating it from overexercise, anorexia involves a linked to serious health risks, typical overeating. distorted body image and including kidney and heart serious health risks, including failure, and psychological issues organ failure and psychological like anxiety and depression. disorders. Sexual Behavior Research on animals shows that the hypothalamus, especially the medial preoptic area, is crucial for sexual behavior, while limbic structures like the amygdala and nucleus accumbens influence sexual motivation. In humans, sexual motivation and behavior can also be dissociated, with hormones like testosterone playing a significant role in regulating sexual drive. Sexual Behavior Before the late 1940s, reliable information on sex was scarce, with most knowledge coming from personal experience or peers. Dr. Alfred Kinsey's large-scale surveys on human sexuality in the 1940s and 1950s, though controversial and criticized for sampling errors, sparked open conversations and greatly influenced future sexual behavior research. Kinsey's research revealed that women are as interested in sex as men, that masturbation has no adverse health effects, and that same-sex relationships are relatively common. He also developed the Kinsey scale to categorize sexual orientation, which measures emotional, romantic, and erotic attractions.  Sexual Response Cycle In 1966, Masters and Johnson studied nearly 700 people, identifying four phases of the sexual response cycle and debunking myths about genital size and vaginal elasticity, though their findings have since been critiqued. 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Jan Excitement Plateau Orgasm Resolution Data Sexual Orientation Sexual orientation refers to a person's emotional, romantic, and erotic attraction to others or no one. While most people identify as heterosexual, others may identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, pansexual, asexual, or other non-heterosexual orientations. These identities may exist on a spectrum, with terms like LGBTQ+ used to encompass various sexual orientations and gender identities. Research suggests that sexual orientation has a biological basis, with genetic, brain structure, and body function differences observed across orientations, supporting the idea that sexual orientation is largely innate. Sexual Orientation: Misunderstanding Sexual orientation is not a choice but a stable, inherent characteristic. Claims of successful conversion therapy have been widely discredited due to flawed research methods and lack of credible evidence. Dr. Robert Spitzer, a key figure in conversion therapy research, publicly apologized and recanted his findings in 2012, acknowledging the harm of such practices. As a result, many organizations and states have moved to ban conversion therapy.  Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Sexual orientation refers to a person's Gender identity is how someone Transgender people have a gender attraction to others, such as perceives their gender, whether male, identity different from their assigned heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, female, nonbinary, or genderqueer. sex and may experience gender pansexual, or asexual. dysphoria, though not all do. In 2019, the WHO reclassified this condition as "gender incongruence," recognizing it as part of sexual health, not a mental disorder.  Theories of Emotion An emotion is a subjective state of being that we often describe as our feelings. Our emotional states are combinations of physiological arousal, psychological appraisal, and subjective experiences. Together, these are the components of emotion, and our experiences, backgrounds, and cultures inform our emotions. Therefore, different people may have different emotional experiences even when faced with similar circumstances. James-Lange Theory Cannon-Bard Theory The James-Lange theory of emotion asserts that emotions Physiological arousal and emotional experience occur arise from physiological arousal. simultaneously, yet independently. Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory Cognitive Mediation Theory Emotions are composed of two factors: physiological and Asserts our emotions are determined by our appraisal of cognitive. In other words, physiological arousal is the stimulus. This appraisal mediates between the interpreted in context to produce the emotional stimulus and the emotional response, and it is immediate experience. and often unconscious  Charles Darwin’s book The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals Happiness Surprise Sadness Fright Disgust Contempt Anger Social Psychology Social psychology Social psychology examines how people affect one another, and it looks at the power of the situation. According to the APA, social psychologists - are interested in all aspects of personality and social interaction, exploring the influence of interpersonal and group relationships on human behavior."  Situational and Dispositional Influence Situationism Dispositionism Application in Social Psychology is the view that our behavior and actions is the view that our behavior and actions Social psychologists focus on situational are determined by our immediate are determined by internal factors (an factors, while personality psychologists environment and surroundings attribute of a person such as personality emphasize individual traits. Modern traits and temperament). approaches combine both, leading to social-personality psychology, which studies how internal and situational factors interact to influence behavior. Is the Fundamental Attribution error a universal phenomenon? Individualistic Collectivistic a culture that focuses on individual a culture that focuses on communal achievement and autonomy, have the greatest relationships with others, such as family, tendency to commit the fundamental attribution friends, and community, are less likely to error. commit the fundamental attribution error  Social Psychology Key Terms 1 Actor-Observer Bias 2 Self-Serving Bias phenomenon of attributing other people’s is the tendency to explain our successes as due to behavior to internal factors (fundamental dispositional (internal) characteristics, but to attribution error) while attributing our own explain our failures as due to situational behavior to situational forces (external) factors 3 Just-World Hypothesis 4 Implication of Just-World Belief is the belief that people get the outcomes they In order to maintain the belief that the world is a deserve. fair place, people tend to think that good people experience positive outcomes, and bad people experience negative outcomes.  Self-Presentation Social Role Social Norm Script is a pattern of behavior that is is a group’s expectation of is a person’s knowledge about expected of a person in a what is appropriate and the sequence of events given setting or group acceptable behavior for its expected in a specific setting members—how they are supposed to behave and think.  Attitude and Persuasion Attitude is our evaluation of a person, an idea, or an object. Three components: an affective component (feelings), a behavioral component (the effect of the attitude on behavior), and a cognitive component (belief and knowledge). Cognitive Dissonance as Justification of Effort, suggests that psychological discomfort arising from we value goals and achievements that holding two or more inconsistent we put a lot of effort into. If attitudes, behaviors, or cognitions something is difficult for us to achieve, we believe it is more worthwhile. (group dynamics)  Persuasion Persuasion is the process of changing our attitude toward something based on some kind of communication. Much of the persuasion we experience comes from outside forces. Persuasion can take two paths: Central and Peripheral Route The central route is logic driven The peripheral route ( association Foot In The Door Technique and uses data and facts to with positive characteristics such the persuader gets a person to agree to convince people of an argument’s as positive emotions and celebrity bestow a small favor or to buy a small worthiness endorsement ) is an indirect route item, only to later request a larger favor that uses peripheral cues to or purchase of a bigger item associate positivity with the message  Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience Conformity is the change in a Obedience is the change of an Groupthink is the modification of person’s behavior to go along individual’s behavior to comply the opinions of members of a with the group, even if he does with a demand by an authority group to align with what they not agree with the group. i.e. Asch figure. i.e. Stanley Milgram's believe is the group consensus Conformity Study Experiment  Conformity, Compliance, and Obedience Group polarization is the Social loafing involves a Deindividuation refers to strengthening of an original group reduction in individual output on situations in which a person may attitude after the discussion of tasks where contributions are feel a sense of anonymity and views within a group. pooled. i.e. dispersion of therefore a reduction in responsibility accountability and sense of self when among others.  Prejudice and Discrimination Prejudice is a negative attitude Stereotype—that is, a specific Discrimination is negative action and feeling toward an individual belief or assumption about toward an individual as a result of based solely on one’s membership individuals based solely on their one’s membership in a particular in a particular social group membership in a group, group regardless of their individual characteristics. May result to Self- Fulfilling Prophecy ( s an expectation held by a person that alters their behavior in a way that tends to make it true)  Prejudice and Discrimination Racism is prejudice Sexism is prejudice Ageism- prejudice and Homophobia - prejudice and discrimination and discrimination discrimination toward and discrimination of against an individual toward individuals individuals based solely individuals based solely based solely on one’s based on their sex. on their age. on their sexual membership in a orientation. specific racial group  In-Group and Out-Group Ingroup Outgroup Ingroup Bias is a group that we identify with or see is a group that we view as fundamentally prejudice and discrimination perceiving ourselves as belonging to different from us. the outgroup as less favorable.  Aggression seek to cause harm or pain to another person. Hostile aggression is motivated by Instrumental aggression is Bullying is repeated negative feelings of anger with intent to motivated by achieving a goal and treatment of another person, often cause pain does not necessarily involve intent an adolescent, over time. to cause pain; a contract killer who Cyberbullying is repeated behavior murders for hire displays that is intended to cause instrumental aggression. psychological or emotional harm to another person.  Bystander Effect The bystander effect is a phenomenon in which a Diffusion of responsibility is the tendency for no one witness or bystander does not volunteer to help a in a group to help because the responsibility to help is victim or person in distress. spread throughout the group  Prosocial Behavior Voluntary behavior with the intent to help other people Altruism is people’s desire to help others even if the Empathy is the capacity to understand another costs outweigh the benefits of helping. person’s perspective, to feel what they feel.  Forming Relationship Homophily is the tendency for Reciprocity is the give and take in Self-disclosure is the sharing of people to form social networks, relationships. personal information. including friendships, marriage, business relationships, and many other types of relationships, with others who are similar. Triangular Theory of Love Intimacy is the sharing of details and intimate thoughts and emotions Passion is the physical attraction—the flame in the fire. Commitment is standing by the person—the “in sickness and health” part of the relationship. Triangular Theory of Love According to social exchange theory, we act as naïve economists in keeping a tally of the ratio of costs and benefits of forming and maintaining a relationship with others People are motivated to maximize the benefits of social exchanges, or relationships, and minimize the costs.