PSYCH Final Notes PDF

Leadership: An Overview Leadership Effectiveness: Refers to how the leader’s Best leadership style: High concern for both task and Importance of Leadership traits and...

Leadership: An Overview Leadership Effectiveness: Refers to how the leader’s Best leadership style: High concern for both task and Importance of Leadership traits and behaviors lead to successful outcomes, which relationships (9,9). Virtually everyone will take on a leadership role at some include both task-oriented and social-oriented results. Leadership effectiveness depends on balancing these point in life (e.g., with friends, at work, in the community). Factors Influencing Emergence: dimensions. Leadership is dynamic and involves the interaction Trait Model: Leaders are often seen as possessing between the leader, followers, and the situation. certain physical or psychological traits. Situational Leadership Theory (Hersey and Blanchard) Situational Model: Leadership depends on the situation Life Cycle Theory: What is Leadership? and the dynamics between leader, followers, and Leadership style should match the developmental stage Key Definitions: context. or maturity of the followers. 1. Stogdill (1950): Leadership is the process of influencing the activities of an organized group toward goal setting Interactional Model: Leadership results from an Followers are categorized as: and achievement. interaction between traits, followers, and the situation. o M1/S1: Unable and unwilling. 2. Barrow (1977): Describes leadership as the behavioral o M2/S2: Unable but willing. Trait Theory of Leadership o M3/S3: Able but unwilling. process of influencing individuals and groups toward set "Great Man" Theory: o M4/S4: Able and willing. goals. 3. Bass (1990): Leadership occurs when one group Leaders are believed to possess inherent traits (e.g., Leaders adjust their approach from directing to delegating as member modifies the motivation or competencies of energy, dominance, self-reliance). followers become more capable. others, suggesting that anyone in the group can exhibit Traits like extraversion, conscientiousness, and leadership. emotional stability are associated with leadership. Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory Ohio State Leadership Studies: Key Concepts: Leadership Myths Focused on two main leadership behaviors: In-group: Competent, trustworthy, highly motivated James MacGregor Burns: followers. o Initiating Structure: Task-oriented behavior. Leadership is one of the most observed but least o Consideration: Social/emotional behavior. Out-group: Less competent, untrustworthy, less understood phenomena. motivated followers. Leadership is an interpersonal, transactional, reciprocal Leadership Styles LMX emphasizes the importance of the leader-follower process between a person and a group. Demographics and Bias: relationship and how it impacts group performance. Effective leadership is defined by goal achievement. Gender and minority status can affect leadership Common Leadership Myths: perceptions. Shared Leadership and Followership 1. Leadership is power: Leadership is about influence Implicit Leadership Theories (ILTs) guide what people Leadership can be distributed across the group, with a with people, not over them. believe about leaders based on societal expectations. focus on collective decision-making and shared 2. Leaders are born: Leadership can be developed; it’s Leadership Theories: responsibilities. not just an innate trait. 3. All groups have leaders: Large, complex groups Hogg’s Social Identity Theory: Leadership is shaped Followership Types: require leaders. by group needs, and individuals adopt prototypes or o Exemplary Follower: Fully engaged. 4. People resist their leaders: Most groups accept the stereotypes based on group identity. o Conformist Follower: Devoted but passive. need for a leader. o Passive Follower: Lacks initiative. Leadership Theories and Approaches o Alienated Follower: Critical but disengaged. 5. Leaders make or break their groups: Leadership has Situational Models: an effect but is often exaggerated (20-45% effect in organizations). Tolstoy’s Zeitgeist Theory: Leadership success is Full Range Leadership Model influenced by uncontrollable situational factors. Transactional Leadership: Leadership vs. Management Contingency Theory (Fiedler, 1967): Leadership Focuses on task completion and mutual exchanges Key Differences: effectiveness depends on the leader's style and the between leaders and followers (e.g., clear expectations, Management: Focuses on systems, structures, and situation. Leaders are classified as task-oriented or contingent rewards). short-term goals (what to do). person-oriented. Reactive (after-the-fact) and proactive (corrective Leadership: Focuses on people, vision, and long-term actions) behaviors. direction (how to do it). Contingency Theory (Fiedler) Transformational Leadership: Fiedler’s Model: Some individuals can be both leaders and managers, Builds on transactional leadership by inspiring followers while others may be one or the other. Leaders are classified as task-oriented (low LPC score) and satisfying higher-order needs. or person-oriented (high LPC score). Focuses on vision, innovation, and inspiring followers to Leadership and Management in Context Leadership effectiveness is determined by: exceed expectations. Case Study: University of Guelph’s Presidential Selection: o Leader-member relations o Four elements: Strengths, challenges, opportunities, and leadership o Task structure ▪ Inspirational Motivation qualities are important in shaping the future of the o Position power ▪ Idealized Influence institution. LPC Scale: Measures a leader’s least preferred coworker to assess task vs. relationship orientation. High LPC leaders perform ▪ Intellectual Stimulation Leadership Effectiveness vs. Leader Emergence well in moderately favorable situations, while low LPC leaders ▪ Individualized Consideration Key Concepts: excel in highly favorable or unfavorable situations. Authentic Leadership Leader Emergence: How individuals rise to leadership positions, often driven by traits like assertiveness and The Leadership Grid (Blake & Mouton) Based on transparency, trust, and acting in accordance extraversion. Focuses on a leader's concern for both task and with one’s true self. relationships. Emphasizes follower development and guidance toward worthy objectives.  Coordinator: Skilled at integrating and managing the Stimulating Innovation: Promotes creative thinking and Level 5 Leadership (Collins, 2001) work of team members, ensuring efficient collaboration. encourages followers to explore new ideas and Hierarchy: 1. Level 5: Humble, driven to achieve lasting success. Team Builder: Able to foster a collaborative solutions. 2. Level 4: Effective leader who catalyzes commitment. atmosphere, motivating individuals to work together Encouraging Expression of Ideas: Fosters an open toward common goals. environment where individuals feel safe to express their 3. Level 3: Competent manager. Visionary ideas and rationale. 4. Level 2: Contributing team member. 5. Level 1: Highly capable individual. Imaginative and Forward-Thinking: Has the ability to Encouraging Problem-Solving: Supports and nurtures envision future possibilities and plan accordingly. new ways of doing things, inviting followers to think GLOBE Study (Global Leadership and Organizational Foresight: Anticipates future events, challenges, and critically and innovatively. Effectiveness) opportunities, helping to guide decision-making. Individualized Consideration Conducted by Robert House in the 1990s, this study Plans Ahead: Prepares and anticipates potential Personalized Approach: Treats each follower as an explored cultural variations in leadership practices challenges, ensuring that the team is ready for the individual, recognizing and responding to their unique across 62 societies. future. needs, abilities, and aspirations. Key cultural dimensions studied include: Other Key Qualities Active Listening: Listens attentively to followers, o Uncertainty Avoidance Dependable: Consistently reliable, dependable, and ensuring their concerns and ideas are heard and o Power Distance trustworthy in all circumstances. understood. o Institutional & Group Collectivism Intelligent: Quick learner, able to understand and Development and Coaching: Takes an active role in o Future Orientation process complex information. furthering followers' development through advising, Leadership Qualities and Attributes teaching, and providing coaching support. Decisive: Makes firm and quick decisions, Diplomatic demonstrating confidence and clarity. Mentorship: Guides followers toward their personal and Skilled at Interpersonal Relations: Able to manage Administratively Skilled: Capable of planning, professional goals, providing tailored guidance to help relationships effectively, showing tact in interactions. them grow. organizing, coordinating, and overseeing the work of Effective Bargainer: Skilled in negotiating and finding large teams. Transactional Leadership mutually agreeable solutions. Excellence-Oriented: Strives for high performance, Contingent Rewards Solution-Oriented: Identifies solutions that satisfy constantly aiming to achieve the best possible results. Reward-Based Leadership: Provides tangible rewards diverse interests, helping to resolve conflicts. Leadership Styles and Attributes for achieving set goals and meeting performance Integrity Idealized Influence expectations. Moral Respectability: Upholds strong ethical standards Clear Expression of Conviction: Articulates beliefs Recognizing Achievement: Acknowledges and and acts in accordance with moral principles. and values clearly, emphasizing the importance of trust rewards accomplishments, offering positive feedback to Trustworthy: Earns and deserves the trust of others by in leadership. reinforce desired behaviors. consistently being reliable and keeping promises. Influence on Difficult Issues: Takes a strong stand on Defining Expectations: Clearly outlines performance Just: Acts fairly, considering what is right and just in difficult topics, urging followers to adopt shared values standards and mutually agreed-upon goals. decision-making. and guiding them through complex moral and ethical decisions. Mutual Agreements: Negotiates with followers to set Honest: Speaks and acts truthfully, fostering expectations and resources, offering rewards based on transparency and trust. Focus on Purpose and Commitment: Emphasizes the performance. Inspirational significance of purpose, dedication, and ethical Management by Exception (Active) consequences in decision-making. Motivates Others: Encourages others to work hard by Active Supervision: Monitors followers' performance providing inspiration and clear purpose. Encouragement of Ethical Leadership: Demonstrates closely and intervenes when there are deviations from and encourages high ethical standards in leadership Encouraging: Offers support, confidence, and hope, practices. established goals or standards. helping others stay motivated and confident. Inspirational Motivation Corrective Action: Actively corrects and addresses Positive: Maintains an optimistic and confident outlook, Articulating a Vision: Clearly communicates an problems before they become critical, ensuring fostering a can-do attitude. continuous performance alignment with goals. appealing, forward-looking vision, creating excitement Dynamic: Highly energetic, enthusiastic, and actively and a shared sense of purpose among followers. Goal-Oriented Monitoring: Emphasizes the importance involved, bringing passion and motivation to the team. of maintaining high standards by focusing on the Challenging High Standards: Pushes followers to set correction of any discrepancies from expectations. Motive Arouser: Effectively mobilizes and activates ambitious goals and uphold high standards, fostering followers by igniting their enthusiasm. growth and improvement. Avoidant/Passive Leadership Confidence Builder: Instills confidence in others by Optimistic and Enthusiastic Communication: Speaks Passive Management by Exception demonstrating belief in their abilities. with enthusiasm and positivity, encouraging followers to Infrequent Involvement: Leaders remain uninvolved in Motivational: Encourages others to exceed tackle challenges with confidence and drive. day-to-day activities unless problems arise. expectations, make personal sacrifices, and strive for Providing Meaning and Encouragement: Motivates Reactive Leadership: Takes action only after mistakes excellence. followers by providing a clear sense of meaning in their Team-Oriented or failures are brought to their attention, showing little work and offering consistent encouragement. proactive leadership. Interpersonal Skills: Excellent at building relationships Intellectual Stimulation Lack of Engagement: Focuses on resolving issues only and working cooperatively within a team. Challenging Assumptions and when necessary, lacking engagement with followers Communicative: Frequently engages in communication Traditions: Encourages followers to question the status unless urgent concerns appear. with others, ensuring clarity and understanding. quo, challenge old beliefs, and consider new Laissez-faire Leadership Informed: Possesses a broad knowledge base and perspectives. stays aware of relevant information.  Non-Interference: Does not take responsibility for Key Characteristics: leadership duties, leaving followers to navigate o Relationship-oriented, communal challenges without guidance. (emphasizing mutual respect and trust), and Absence When Needed: Frequently absent from key socio-emotional. decisions or moments when leadership is crucial, leaving o Focuses on team cohesion, trust, and gaps in leadership support. emotional well-being. Failure to Communicate Values: Does not express Sample Behaviors: clear views, values, or directives, often leaving followers o Active Listening: Takes time to listen to team without guidance. members' concerns, ideas, and feedback. Lack of Accountability: Leaders in this style are o Clarity and Approachability: Communicates disengaged and rarely hold themselves accountable, clearly and is easy for group members to creating a sense of leadership void. understand, ensuring mutual understanding. o Friendly and Approachable: Maintains a These leadership styles reflect various approaches to influencing warm, open demeanor, encouraging trust and and guiding teams. Transformational leadership(Idealized mutual respect. Influence, Inspirational Motivation, Intellectual Stimulation, o Equal Treatment: Treats all group members Individualized Consideration) encourages growth, innovation, and as equals, fostering an inclusive and development, while Transactional leadership (Contingent collaborative team environment. Rewards, Management by Exception) focuses on maintaining o Willingness to Adapt: Open to making standards and rewarding performance. In changes based on the needs and input of contrast, Avoidant/Passive leadership (Passive Management by team members, showing flexibility. Exception, Laissez-faire) lacks active involvement and Skills & Attributes: accountability, leading to disengagement from both followers and o Relations Skilled: Strong interpersonal skills, goals. able to navigate social dynamics and maintain Leadership Factors: Task vs. Relationship Leadership positive group cohesion. Task Leadership o Supportive and Employee- Primary Focus: Task completion, goal achievement, Centered: Focuses on the needs and well- and organizing efforts to meet objectives. being of the team members, creating a Key Characteristics: supportive work environment. o Task-oriented, agentic (assertive and goal- o Group Maintenance: Works to maintain team driven), and goal-focused. morale, satisfaction, and cooperation, o Focuses on achieving results and ensuring ensuring long-term success. productivity. Sample Behaviors: Summary: o Assigns Tasks: Delegates specific Task Leadership focuses on achieving goals through responsibilities and tasks to team members to efficient task management, clear expectations, and achieve goals. accountability, emphasizing productivity and o Sets Clear Expectations: Clearly organizational success. communicates attitudes, behaviors, and goals Relationship Leadership emphasizes building trust, to the group. ensuring emotional well-being, and fostering a o Critiques Performance: Provides supportive, inclusive, and collaborative environment, constructive feedback, especially critical of promoting long-term group cohesion and individual poor performance, aiming to correct and development. improve. Both leadership styles are essential for creating a well-rounded o Ensures Efficiency: Monitors and ensures and effective leadership approach, with task leadership ensuring goals are met and relationship leadership ensuring a positive and Power the team is working at full capacity, addressing engaged team atmosphere. Key Questions: any obstacles. 1. Can people be compelled to act in ways they would o Coordinates Activities: Oversees and never consider? organizes group activities to streamline efforts 2. Can individuals be corrupted by power? and optimize productivity. 3. State vs. Trait: How do the leader, followers, and the Skills & Attributes: situation interact in determining power dynamics? o Administratively Skilled: Able to manage, 4. Sources of Power: What are the sources of power in plan, and organize tasks and workflows. groups, and how are they used? o Goal Achievement Focused: Prioritizes 5. Limits of Authority: What are the limits to an authority’s meeting organizational objectives and power? accomplishing the task at hand. o Production-Centered: Concerned with the Social Power output and efficiency of the team's work. Definition: Social power is the capacity to influence Relationship Leadership others. It is the ability to motivate, direct, and affect Primary Focus: Building and maintaining positive people’s behaviors and decisions. interpersonal relationships, fostering a supportive and Commonplace Practices: collaborative environment.  o Coaches demanding obedience from athletes. Destructive Power: 3. Legitimate Power: Based on the recognized right to o VPs demanding that deadlines be met. Power Can Corrupt: Sometimes, power can corrupt make demands (e.g., authority figures like police or o Board members and their extraordinary individuals, leading to harmful decisions or actions (e.g., professors). effects of power. cult leaders). 4. Referent Power: Influence based on respect and admiration (e.g., charismatic leaders). Direct vs. Indirect Power: 5. Expert Power: Influence due to superior knowledge or o Direct Power: Explicit, such as through Milgram's "Obedience to Authority" Study expertise (e.g., specialist or skilled professionals). commands or authority. Study Focus: Investigated how cooperative people are 6. Informational Power: Control over access to o Indirect Power: Involves norms, group in response to authority, specifically destructive information (e.g., access to crucial data or ideas). values, or exclusion. obedience. Extreme Authority: Context: Inspired by the trial of a former Nazi who Power Tactics o Sometimes, extreme forms of authority can defended his actions by claiming to be "just following Direct vs. Indirect Tactics: lead to disastrous outcomes (e.g., cults and orders." o Direct: Strong tactics like punishment or abusive organizations). Procedure: withholding rewards. Example of Extreme Power: o Participants were told they were part of an o Indirect: Weaker tactics like collaboration, o McDonald's Strip Search Incident (2004): A experiment examining punishment’s effects on ingratiation, or persuasion. learning. manager forced an employee to undergo a Rational vs. Nonrational Tactics: strip search after receiving a phone call, o One participant (always the "teacher") would administer increasingly painful electric shocks o Rational: Using data, logic, and structured illustrating the dangers of unquestioning reasoning. obedience to authority. to the "learner" (a confederate) for incorrect answers. o Nonrational: Using emotions, group dynamics, or manipulation. Power Over Group Members: Case Examples o Shocks: Volted from 15 to 450 volts, with the Heavens Gate: teacher instructed to move to the next higher Unilateral vs. Bilateral: Leader: Marshall Applewhite. voltage after each mistake. o Unilateral: Power exerted without cooperation Results: (e.g., commands, evasion). Beliefs: Group members gave up material possessions, o Bilateral: Power exercised through adopted a highly ascetic lifestyle, and believed in UFOs. o Obedience Rate: 65% of participants delivered the maximum 450 volts, despite negotiation or collaboration. Mass Suicide (1997): Members ingested phenobarbital hearing screams from the learner (who was Behavioral Commitment: mixed with vodka and asphyxiated with plastic bags. not actually shocked). o Foot-in-the-Door Technique: Starting with Their bodies were found in identical black shirts and Nike shoes. Replications: small requests to increase the likelihood of o Milgram conducted several replications, agreement to larger ones. Branch Davidians: confirming high rates of obedience in different o Foot-in-the-Face Technique: Starting with an Leader: David Koresh (Vernon Howell), a former 9th- unreasonably large request, followed by a settings and contexts. grade dropout. more reasonable one. Manipulation: Koresh made followers rely entirely on Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Study (1973) him, severing all other emotional bonds (family, friends) Using Power to Influence Others: Kelman’s Three-Stage Model to increase dependence on him. Purpose: To study social roles and how people behave 1. Compliance: Group members obey without personally when assigned to roles of authority and subordination. Event: The compound was investigated, leading to a agreeing with the request. deadly raid and fire in 1993. Method: 2. Identification: Group members obey to please the Osama Bin Laden: o Participants were randomly assigned to be authority figure. either "guards" or "prisoners" in a mock prison. 3. Internalization: Group members follow the authority’s Background: Leader of Al-Qaeda, mastermind of 9/11. o Duration: Initially planned for two weeks, but requests because they align with personal values. Leadership Style: Led by example and hints, not direct terminated after six days due to extreme orders. behavior from both guards and prisoners. Effects of Power Perception: Followers were deeply loyal despite doubts Results: 1. Approach-Inhibition Model: due to his commanding presence. o Participants quickly conformed to their roles, o Power leads to approach behaviors (action, Death: Killed by U.S. forces in 2011. with guards becoming increasingly abusive positive affect, and automatic processing). Jonestown: and prisoners showing signs of stress and o Powerlessness leads to inhibition (inaction, negative affect, controlled processing). Leader: Jim Jones. helplessness. 2. Power and Personality: Relocation: Moved congregation to Guyana under the o Zimbardo himself, as the "prison warden," became overly involved in his role and failed o Power Motivation: Some individuals have a belief it would be a paradise free from nuclear attacks. strong desire to wield power. to stop the abuse. Power Abuse: Controlled followers with punishments, Key Takeaway: The Lucifer Effect: The transformation o Social Dominance Orientation (SDO): A drug abuse, and manipulation. tendency to accept and prefer social of ordinary individuals into those capable of morally Mass Suicide (1978): Over 900 people drank cyanide- corrupt behavior due to powerful social roles. inequality, often associated with higher male laced Kool-Aid after being coerced by Jones. preference. Sources of Power in Groups (French & Raven's Power Bases Constructive vs. Destructive Use of Power Theory) Corrupting Effects of Power Constructive Use of Power (Deutsch, 1973): 1. Reward Power: Ability to offer positive rewards (e.g., 1. Mandate Phenomenon: Leaders may overstep their authority when they feel supported by the group. Enhances Group Effectiveness: Power is used to promotions, praise). 2. Coercive Power: Ability to punish or threaten non- 2. Changes in Perception: Leaders may begin to view benefit the group and its goals. compliance (e.g., demotion, isolation). their subordinates differently, justifying unethical actions. Agreed to by Others: The use of power is legitimate and agreed upon by others, not forced upon them.  3. Iron Law of Oligarchy: In any organization, power o Gain Formal Authority: Secure positions that o Offer Fair and Ethical Rewards: Ensure tends to concentrate in the hands of a few individuals come with formal power and authority (e.g., rewards are equitable and aligned with ethical who will protect their own interests. managerial roles). standards. o Use Symbols of Authority: Display items or o Explain Criteria for Giving Rewards: Be Resistance to Influence actions that signify your position (e.g., office transparent about how rewards are earned Revolutionary Coalitions: Subgroups that attempt to space, title, uniform). and distributed. disrupt the authority structure. o Get People to Acknowledge Authority: o Provide Rewards as Promised: Honor Reactance: Resistance that occurs when individuals feel Ensure others recognize your authority and commitments by delivering rewards as their personal freedom is threatened. position of power. promised. Ripple Effect: When conflict or rebellion spreads o Exercise Authority Regularly: Use your o Use Rewards Symbolically to Reinforce authority frequently to solidify your leadership. Desirable Behavior: Use rewards as a tool to throughout the group after an initial act of resistance. o Follow Proper Channels in Giving Orders: reinforce behaviors that you want to Issue commands in an organized, respectful encourage. The Dark Side of Personality in Leadership manner, following hierarchy. 3. Expert Power Machiavellianism: The use of manipulation for personal o Back Up Authority with Reward and o Gain More Relevant Knowledge: Continually gain and a lack of respect for others. Coercive Power: Support legitimate power enhance your expertise in areas relevant to Narcissism: An inflated sense of self-worth, a need for with the ability to offer rewards or impose your role and followers. attention, and exaggeration of achievements. punishments. o Keep Informed About Technical Matters: Psychopathy: Lack of empathy, deceitfulness, o Make Polite, Clear Requests: When Stay updated on developments in your field or impulsivity, and a disregard for others' rights. exercising authority, be clear and respectful in area of expertise. your requests. o Develop Exclusive Sources of Information: Positive Effects of Power o Explain the Reasons for a Request: Provide Cultivate access to unique or specialized 1. Proactive and Engaged: clear, logical explanations to build information that others do not have. o Individuals in power are more likely to take understanding and compliance. o Use Symbols to Verify Expertise: Showcase initiative and engage in actions that drive o Don’t Exceed Your Scope of Authority: credentials, experience, or accomplishments progress. Ensure that your actions and orders are within that highlight your expertise. o Power enhances the likelihood of actively your designated authority. o Demonstrate Competence by Solving pursuing goals and making decisions. o Verify Authority if Necessary: If unsure, Difficult Problems: Show your expertise 2. Positive, Strong Emotions: verify your authority to avoid overstepping. through action, especially in complex or o Holding power tends to elicit positive o Be Sensitive to Target Concerns: Be mindful challenging situations. emotional states, such as confidence and of the concerns of those you lead. o Don’t Make Rash, Careless Statements: optimism. o Follow Up to Verify Compliance: Check in Avoid making unthoughtful comments that o Leaders with power may experience a sense with others to confirm they are following could undermine your credibility. of personal agency, which boosts emotional through. o Don’t Lie or Misrepresent the Facts: well-being. o Insist on Compliance if Appropriate: Maintain honesty and transparency to ensure 3. Goal-Focused: Enforce compliance when necessary, trust in your expertise. o Powerful individuals are more likely to stay especially for critical tasks. o Don’t Keep Changing Positions: Be focused on long-term goals and objectives. 2. Reward Power consistent in your views and decisions to o They are typically better at organizing o Discover What People Need and Want: maintain authority and credibility. resources and aligning others towards the Understand what motivates your followers and o Explain the Reasons for a Request or achievement of these goals. what they value. Proposal: Justify your ideas and decisions 4. Positive Emotions: o Gain More Control Over Rewards: Secure with logic and evidence. o Power is associated with positive affect, such control over the distribution of rewards to o Explain Why a Request is Important: Help as happiness, pride, and satisfaction. influence behavior. others understand the significance of your o This emotional state can improve personal o Ensure People Know You Control Rewards: request to gain their support. well-being and group morale. Make it clear that you have the power to o Provide Evidence that a Proposal Will Be 5. Enhanced Cognitive Functioning: provide rewards. Successful: Support your ideas with data or o Power can lead to improved cognitive o Don’t Promise More Than You Can Deliver: logical reasoning to persuade others. performance, such as better problem-solving Be realistic and avoid overpromising rewards o Listen Seriously to Target Concerns: and decision-making abilities. that may not be feasible. Respect and consider the views of others to o Cognitive flexibility and creativity may o Don’t Use Rewards in a Manipulative Way: build trust and cooperation. increase, as power allows individuals to feel Avoid using rewards solely for personal gain o Show Respect for the Target (Don’t Be more confident in exploring different options. or to manipulate others. Arrogant): Be humble and considerate, even 6. Insulation from Influence: o Avoid Complex, Mechanical Incentives: when demonstrating expertise. o Powerful individuals are less susceptible to Steer clear of overly complex reward systems By following these guidelines, leaders can enhance their power, external influence and social pressures. that may confuse or alienate people. use it effectively, and maintain trust and respect within their teams. o They are more likely to stick to their beliefs o Don’t Use Rewards for Personal Benefit: and decisions, which can make them more Ensure rewards are used fairly and not for resilient in the face of opposition or criticism. personal advantage. Guidelines on Building and Using Power o Offer Desirable Rewards: Provide rewards How to Increase and Maintain Power that are truly valued by the recipients. 1. Legitimate Power Cohesion and Development Group Cohesion Significance in Group Behavior: Group cohesion is a key factor in group behavior studies and is often emphasized by group leaders to motivate team members. Common Clichés: Phrases like "Together We Stand, Divided We Fall," "There is No I in Team," and "Players Play, Teams Win" highlight the importance of cohesion. Nature of Cohesion: Cohesion is a dynamic, multi-level process with various components that are constantly evolving. Equifinality: The final state of group cohesion can be reached via multiple paths, as explained by Katz & Kahn (1978). Types of Group Cohesion 1. Social Cohesion: o Refers to the attraction among group members and their attachment to the group as a whole. o Focuses on interpersonal relationships and the emotional bond within the group. 2. Task Cohesion: o Refers to the commitment of members to work together to achieve a common goal and the ability to perform tasks successfully as a unit. o Involves a shared commitment to completing the group’s objectives. 3. Individual and Group-Level Concept: o Cohesion exists at both the individual level (personal attachment to the group) and the group level (collective unity and goal alignment). o The level of cohesion often reflects the overall health of the group, influencing satisfaction and performance.  4. Health of the Group: 3. Norming: Group becomes more unified, roles o Cohesion indicates whether the group Carron’s General Conceptual Model of Cohesion and goals are clarified, and trust increases. experiences unity or division. Four Antecedents of Cohesion: 4. Performing: The group reaches a high level o A more cohesive group is not always the most 1. Environmental Factors: Social pressures of productivity and maturity, focusing on task skilled but can be more successful due to affecting group dynamics. achievement with less need for guidance. better coordination and morale. 2. Personal Factors: Individual differences such 5. Adjourning: The dissolution stage, which can as gender, race, and age. be planned (e.g., end of a project) or Definitions of Group Cohesion 3. Leadership Factors: The style and unplanned (e.g., group disbandment). It can 1. Festinger, Schachter, and Back (1950): effectiveness of group leadership. be emotionally challenging, especially if o Defined cohesion as “the total field of forces 4. Team Factors: Group-specific factors like unplanned. which act on members to remain in the group.” shared experiences, stability, norms, and 2. Back (1951): roles. Group Development Models o Described cohesion as “the attraction which a Successive-Stage Theories: E.g., Tuckman’s model. group has for its members.” Studying Group Cohesion Cyclical Models: E.g., Bales's equilibrium model, where 3. Libo (1953): Measurement Methods: the group oscillates between task and social roles. o Defined it as “the resultant forces acting on o Pronouns: Use of "we," "us" vs. "I," "me" Punctuated Equilibrium: Groups experience periods of each member to remain in the group.” indicates group cohesion. rapid change or reorganization (e.g., re-norming or 4. Limitations of Early Definitions: o Sociometry & Social Network Analysis: renewed conflict). o Early definitions mainly focused on individual Assessing social connections and interactions attraction to the group or team morale. within the group. Cohesion and Commitment o These definitions failed to account for factors o Self-Report Assessments: Tools like Festinger’s Theory of Cognitive Dissonance: like dissatisfaction, conflict, team adversity, or the Group Environment Scale goal-setting challenges. o Predicts that individuals who invest more effort (GES) and Perceived Cohesion Scalehelp in a group will become more committed to it, 5. Mudrack (1989): evaluate cohesion. as a way to reduce dissonance between effort o Noted that while cohesion seems intuitively Dimensions of Perceived Team Cohesion (Carron et and outcome. easy to understand, defining it is more al., 1985): complex. Supporting Studies: Aronson & Mills' initiation study 1. Individual Attraction to the Group Task (ATG-T): found increased commitment in groups with more 6. Carron, Brawley, and Widmeyer (1998): Member’s feelings about involvement in group tasks. o Defined cohesion as “a dynamic process intense entry rituals. 2. Individual Attraction to the Group Social (ATG-S): reflected in the tendency of a group to stick Member’s regard for social acceptance and interaction within the together and remain united in pursuit of its Hazing and Commitment group. goals or to satisfy member needs.” 3. Group Integration Task (GI-T): Feelings about Bonding Through Hazing: achieving group goals. o Hazing can increase group dependency, What is Group Cohesion? 4. Group Integration Social (GI-S): Feelings about the hierarchy, and commitment, but it is not an 1. Cohesion = Attraction: group as a social entity. effective or healthy means of promoting o Early theories (e.g., Lewin, Festinger) saw Conceptual Model for Cohesion: cohesion. cohesion as individual attraction toward the o Individual Level: Personal attractions to o Dangers of Hazing: Hazing is ineffective, group, stemming from positive attitudes. harmful, illegal in many places, and often specific members and the group. o Similarity Principle: Cohesive groups tend to leads to physical or psychological harm. have members who are similar to each other o Group Level: Collective cohesion in both task The Nature of Cohesion achievement and social interactions. (e.g., shared values, behaviors). o Hogg's Concept: Differentiates between Sources of Cohesion Cohesion and Performance 1. Social Cohesion: social attraction (depersonalized liking for group members) vs. personal attraction (liking Cohesion-Performance Relationship: o Social bonds: The attraction between group specific individuals). o Bidirectional: Cohesion and performance members based on interpersonal 2. Cohesion = Unity: influence each other. Successful groups tend relationships, shared values, or common o Cohesive groups have strong solidarity and to have higher cohesion, and cohesive groups social identities. high levels of emotional cohesion, where perform better. o Members feel connected and united, often members feel a sense of belonging and o The relationship is strongest when group because of friendship or mutual respect. identification with the group. members are committed to both the group’s 2. Task Cohesion: o Examples of unity in action include events task and its social cohesion. o Goal-oriented: The commitment of group like Houston/Boston Strong and military or members to achieving common goals and collegiate groups rallying around a common Does Cohesion Develop Over Time? performing effectively as a unit. goal. Dynamic Nature of Cohesion: Cohesion evolves over o Focus on task-related efforts and shared 3. Cohesion = Task & Teamwork: time through various predictable stages. objectives drives cohesion in performance. o Cohesion extends beyond interpersonal Tuckman’s Five-Stage Model of Group Development: 3. Collective Cohesion: relationships and involves the coordinated 1. Forming: Initial phase of the group’s life, o Unity of the group: The sense of belonging activities of multiple individuals working characterized by tension and guarded and collective identity that group members together to achieve common goals. interactions (primary tension). Members are experience. o Collective Efficacy: The shared belief in the often dependent on the leader for guidance. o Reflects the group’s strength as a unit and its group’s ability to succeed in its tasks. 2. Storming: Involves conflict over goals, roles, shared purpose. o Group Potency/Esprit de Corps: The feeling and authority (secondary tension). This phase 4. Emotional Cohesion: of unity, commitment, confidence, and is necessary for developing cohesion. enthusiasm that most members share.  o Emotional bonds: The emotional connections Consequences of Hazing: Reduction in role ambiguity: Members become clearer that group members share, fostering strong o Positive effects: May increase psychological on their roles, responsibilities, and expectations within affective ties within the group. commitment and bonding within the group. the group. o Can include emotional attachment to the o Negative effects: Hazing can cause physical group as a whole or to individual members. and emotional harm, create resentment, and 4. Work (Performing) 5. Structural Cohesion: be harmful to group morale. Major Processes: o Organizational factors: The design of the o Legal and ethical concerns: Hazing is illegal The group becomes highly task-oriented, focusing on group structure, including roles, norms, and in many places and is often considered goal achievement and performance. rules, that contribute to group cohesion. o A well-defined structure and clarity in roles and unethical. Mutual cooperation among members as they work Five Stages of Group Development together to achieve objectives. expectations can strengthen group cohesion. Characteristics: 1. Orientation (Forming) Cohesion & Development Major Processes: Decision making: The group efficiently makes decisions Developing Cohesion and solves problems. Members get to know each other and become familiar Cohesion develops over time as group members with the group’s goals and structure. Problem-solving: The group is focused on overcoming interact, share experiences, and build trust. challenges and achieving success. Focus on dependency and inclusion issues as Theories of Development: members work to gain acceptance. High productivity: The group is functioning at a high o Tuckman’s Five-Stage Model: Groups level, with members working effectively together. Initial acceptance of the leader and the group’s typically go through stages of development consensus begins. (forming, storming, norming, performing, 5. Dissolution (Adjourning) Characteristics: Major Processes: adjourning), with cohesion evolving at each stage. Tentative and polite communication: Members are Termination of roles and group activities as the group cautious, trying to establish rapport. completes its tasks. o Cyclical Models: Groups may move back and forth between stages, experiencing continuous Ambiguity: Concerns about the group’s goals, roles, Reduction of dependency as members prepare for the growth or conflict (e.g., Bales's equilibrium and structure. group’s dissolution. model). Active leadership: Leaders play a key role in guiding Characteristics: the group through this early stage. Disintegration and withdrawal: Emotional separation Consequences of Cohesion Compliant members: Members are generally passive occurs as members prepare to move on. 1. Satisfaction and Adjustment: o Groups with high cohesion generally lead and follow the leader’s direction. Increased independence and emotionality: Members to greater satisfaction among members as experience a mix of feelings such as regret, loss, or 2. Conflict (Storming) relief. they feel more connected and valued. Major Processes: o Better social adjustment: Cohesive groups Regret: Some members may feel sadness or regret make it easier for members to adapt and Disagreement over group procedures and roles. about the group’s end and the relationships formed. integrate into the team. Expression of dissatisfaction and tension among 2. Dynamics and Influence: group members. Summary of the Stages: o Cohesion impacts group dynamics: Strong Rising antagonism towards the leader and conflict Forming: Members are polite, tentative, and dependent cohesion can lead to more effective within the group. on the leader. communication, collaboration, and support. Characteristics: Storming: Conflict emerges over roles and processes, o Influence on behavior: Cohesive groups Criticism of ideas: Members begin to challenge the leading to tension and hostility. often exert stronger influence on individual leader's decisions or group norms. Norming: Unity increases, roles and procedures behavior, making members more likely to Poor attendance: Some members may disengage from become clear, trust builds. adhere to group norms and goals. 3. Productivity: the group due to tension or dissatisfaction. Performing: The group is productive, focused on task o High levels of cohesion are generally Hostility: Emotional tension leads to friction and achievement and cooperation. associated with improved group discomfort. Adjourning: The group disbands after completing its productivity. Polarization and coalition formation: Groups within tasks, leading to emotional closure. o Teams with strong cohesion are often more the group may form, with members aligning against each Conceptual Model for Cohesion motivated, focused, and effective in achieving other or the leader. their tasks. Individual-Level Aspects of Cohesion 3. Structure (Norming) 1. Personal Attraction to Specific People (PA): Explaining Initiations Major Processes: o Definition: An individual’s attraction to specific Cohesion and Initiations The group develops cohesiveness and unity. people in the group (e.g., friends, close Initiation processes: Some groups use initiation rituals acquaintances). Roles, standards, and relationships are established, (e.g., hazing) to create a bond and increase and trust begins to grow. o Impact on Cohesion: Personal connections commitment. or relationships with individual members Communication improves as members start to enhance feelings of belonging and attraction Purpose of Initiations: These activities can foster a understand each other’s strengths and preferences. within the group. sense of belonging, increase group commitment, and Characteristics: 2. Personal Attraction to People Who Attend the strengthen emotional cohesion. Agreement on procedures: The group reaches Class/Group: Hazing consensus on how to operate and make decisions. o Definition: Attraction based on the general Definition: A type of initiation that involves difficult or presence of people who participate in the humiliating tasks, often to test a new member’s group activity (e.g., yoga class, team). commitment to the group.  o Impact on Cohesion: The social dynamic and camaraderie within the group increase personal commitment and attraction to the group. 3. Attractions to the Group - Social: o Definition: An individual’s attraction to the group as a whole, based on social factors such as belonging, shared identity, and the Group Decision Making social climate within the group. Why Make Decisions in Groups? o Impact on Cohesion: Higher social attraction More Information: Groups gather more information than strengthens the individual’s commitment and individuals, leading to better decision making. emotional connection to the group. Task Division: More people allow for the division of labor, enabling specialized contributions. Group-Level Aspects of Cohesion 1. Attractions to the Group - Task: Error Checking: Groups can process information, check for errors, and refine decisions. o Definition: The group’s collective commitment to the task or goal it is working towards. This Standards for Deciding: Groups use established aspect emphasizes a shared focus on decision rules (e.g., majority rule). achieving group objectives. Commitment to Decisions: People are more likely to o Impact on Cohesion: A strong sense of follow through on decisions made in a group. shared goals and mission fosters group unity Support: More people involved means more support for and motivation, improving performance and the decision. teamwork. 2. Group Integration - Task: Faulty Decisions: Despite these advantages, decisions can still be faulty due to various group dynamics. o Definition: The collective sense of how well Effectiveness of Group Decision Making the group is able to work together to achieve its tasks. Examples: Investment groups, advisory boards, medical o Impact on Cohesion: High group integration teams. in terms of task accomplishment reflects a Research Findings: cohesive group that is working efficiently and o Marjorie E. Shaw's (1932) study: Groups effectively toward a shared goal. solved more problems than individuals 3. Group Integration - Social: (Missionary/Cannibal dilemma). o Definition: The social bonds within the group o Groups diagnose problems better (Glick & and the level of interaction and support Staley, 2007), find information quicker members provide one another. (Lazonder, 2005), and have better grades o Impact on Cohesion: A cohesive group with (Zimbardo et al., 2003). strong social integration fosters trust, mutual Why Groups Might Be Ineffective support, and emotional attachment among Over-sampling Shared Information: Groups tend to members. focus on information that everyone knows, neglecting 4. Group as a Whole Works Toward Group Goals: unique insights. o Definition: The group’s collective focus on Unequal Contribution: Not everyone pulls their weight, achieving shared goals, reflecting the leading to a few people doing most of the work. alignment of individual efforts toward the group’s success. Manipulated Discussions: Some members may dominate discussions, influencing decisions. o Impact on Cohesion: Clear, unified group goals strengthen group identity and Increased Risk: Groups may make riskier decisions collaboration. than individuals. Cohesion and Groupthink: High group cohesion can Group Dynamics & Cohesion lead to faulty decision-making due to pressure to Group cohesion is the outcome of both task- conform. related and social elements, where members’ personal Types of Decisions attraction to individuals and the group’s goals are Intellective Tasks: Tasks with a right or wrong answer balanced by their social interactions and group (e.g., math problems). integration. Judgmental Tasks: Tasks with no clear right answer Group cohesion is enhanced when there is a strong (e.g., jury verdicts). sense of personal attraction to both individual members Group Effectiveness: Groups are more effective in and the group as a whole, and when the group is well- intellective tasks, but less so in judgment tasks. integrated around a common task and social relationships. Anatomy of Group Decision Making Phases of Group Decision Making 1. Orientation: Group defines the problem and sets the procedures.  2. Discussion: Group discusses alternatives, shares Discussing Consequences: The group discusses the Implementation Phase information, and processes it. outcomes of each alternative. Desire for Closure: Groups often prefer closure on 3. Decision: The group decides on the best alternative. 4. Implementation: The decision is put into action. Encouragement: Encouragement between group decisions quickly. 5. Post-Mortem Discussion: The group evaluates the members is essential for generating new ideas. Resistance to Change: Participation in decision-making helps reduce resistance to implementing change (e.g., decision and the process. Deciding Phase Coch & French’s study in 1948). Functional Theory of Group Decision Making Effective Groups: Use structured procedures to gather, Social Decision Schemes Ongoing Evaluation: Constantly evaluate the decision analyze, and weigh information. Delegation: One person or subgroup makes the and implementation process, seeking lessons to improve decision for the group (e.g., oligarchy). future decisions. Functional Model: Skilled groups follow a process that leads to a clear decision and helps in the implementation Statistical Aggregation/Averaging: Individual Post-Mortem Discussions phase. decisions are averaged (e.g., polling or surveys). Learning from Past Decisions: The group revisits the Orientation Phase Voting/Plurality: Group members vote, and the majority decision and its implementation to identify lessons rule applies. learned. Defining the Problem: Group identifies the problem, ensuring everyone understands it. Consensus/Unanimous Decision: All members agree Group Polarization on the decision (e.g., jury decision). Setting Procedures: Who is in the group? What roles Polarization Effect: Groups tend to make more extreme will members play? What rules guide the decision- Random Choice: Decision is made by chance. decisions than individuals, shifting responses towards making? Vroom’s Normative Model of Decision Making greater extremity. Strategy & Goals: The group sets strategy, identifies Autocratic I & II (Decide): The leader makes the o Social Comparison Theory: People adjust goals, and prepares for challenges. decision either alone or after gathering some input from their positions to be in line with perceived the group. Shared Mental Model: A common understanding of group norms. tasks, expectations, and knowledge among group Consultative I & II (Consult): The leader shares the o Persuasive-Arguments Theory: Group members. This shared model helps in later stages. problem with a selected group or the whole group before discussions introduce new arguments that Brainstorming making the decision. reinforce extreme positions. Origins: Developed by Alex Osborn (1941) to encourage Facilitate/Delegate: The leader coordinates the group’s o Risk-Supported Wins: Groups may take creativity in business meetings. decision-making process but does not influence the final more risks in decision-making, leading to more choice. extreme outcomes. Rules for Effective Brainstorming: 1. Be expressive. Group vs. Individual Decision Making Groupthink 2. Postpone evaluation. Planning Fallacy Definition of Groupthink 3. Seek quantity. 4. Piggyback on ideas. Planning Errors: Groups tend to underestimate the time Janis’s Theory: A dysfunctional decision-making 5. All ideas and members are equal. required for tasks more than individuals, leading to less process where groups seek unanimous agreement at accurate planning. the expense of critical thinking. Discussion Phase Challenges in Group Discussions Symptoms: Collective Information Processing Poor Discussion Skills: Members may not o Overestimation of the Group: Illusions of Process: Groups collectively gather and review communicate effectively. invulnerability and morality. information to make decisions. Death by Meetings: Excessive meetings that waste o Close-Mindedness: Rationalizing poor o Remembering Information: 30% of group time. decisions, stereotyping outgroups. comments are opinions and analysis, 10% are Law of Triviality: Focusing too much on unimportant o Pressure Towards Uniformity: Self- suggestions, and 10% are about orientation. issues. censorship, illusion of unanimity, direct o Exchanging Information: Members share pressure on dissenters. data and insights. Muddling Through: Inefficient decision-making due to o Defective Decision Making: Omission of lack of focus. important alternatives, poor information o Dialogue vs. Debate: Dialogue encourages The Shared Information Bias (SIB) better information sharing, understanding, and search. member participation. Over-sampling Shared Information: Groups often Causes of Groupthink Collective Memory