Psych Final Exam PDF

Ch.1 What is psychology Psych is science One person - your brain/being Level of analysis 1. Social influences 2. Psychology - the brain 3. Biological - chemical, molecular level 5 main challenges in psychology 1. Human behaviour is very diff...

Ch.1 What is psychology Psych is science One person - your brain/being Level of analysis 1. Social influences 2. Psychology - the brain 3. Biological - chemical, molecular level 5 main challenges in psychology 1. Human behaviour is very difficult to predict, people may change their actions day to day Actions are multiply determined 2. Everything interacts with everything, rarely dependent 3. Everybody’s different, even in groups of “joint opinion” 4. People can influence others opinions-reciprocal determinism 5. Inside vs. outside view of cultures, changes perception Can’t trust ourselves or what we think we know Naive Realism - believe what you see Science says that earth is round Common sense would say flat Boundaries of science Science is something that must be trusted Metaphysical claims - assertions not testable What is science? Collection of facts Approach to evidence collection Minimize bias, and influence when we use science Theory-collection of science that supports the same thing Right 19/20 times to make it a fact Pseudo science Can’t prove it with science Confirmation bias Looking for evidence that backs our claim while looking past evidence that contradicts how one feels Good science tries to disprove original thoughts/ideas Ad hoc Back pseudoscience Explaining finding you didn’t + an excuse Making your thought as you go Belief perseverance Not wanting to change your own beliefs Correlation not causation Just because 2 things happen at the same time doesn’t mean they are related What if there is one other variable linking 2 unrelated incidents Illusory correlation  No connection, but looks like it, people believe it so it becomes real Once you see it, it's there always How does this change our behaviour Logical fallacies Emotional reasoning - using emotions rather than evidence, what's true and false based off how we feel Bandwagon - lots of people believe it so it must be true, others do so I do to Not me - other people have those biases, not me, that would never happen to me only others Either or, framing a question as though we can answer it in only one or two extreme ways Naturalistic - inferring a moral judgement from a scientific fact, science is not always morally right/wrong Warning signs to pseudoscience Absence of research Proof instead of evidence Over Reliance on anecdotes - celebrity endorsements Exaggerated claims - bigger the claim more evidence Lack of peer review Psychobabble - making up sciency words Dangers of pseudoscience Cost - what else could that money be used for Stops us from critically thinking about what we are reading or seeing psychological/ physical change Scientific skepticism accept/believe with evidence/ proof 1. Evidence based off science Principles of critical thinking 1. Ruling out rival hypothesis - is there any other reason behind this? 2. Correlation is not causation - does not mean cause and effect 3. Falsifiability - can it be disproved, is it testable, risky prediction Could be disproved 4. Replicability - want to be able to repeat/replicate findings 5. Extraordinary claims - require extraordinary evidence, if claim contradicts what we already know we require a lot of evidence to believe 6. Occam’s razor (parsimony) - best explanation is sometimes the most complex Is there a reason why more complex We could test it with something simple first Rule of thumb 5 major theoretical perspectives 1. Structuralism - titchner Psychology could be identified by the mins Sensations feeling Wanted a map - similar to periodic table  Structure of the mind A. Introspection Reflect on your mental senses + report How you feel, what you see, how you think Imageless thought Systematic observation - I could go record something that I see 2. Functionalism - William James Student of Darwin What adaptable features does our thinking have Thoughts and feelings Function of thinking, feeling/what purpose All characteristics have a special function/purpose Used introspection as his main way of collecting data 3. Behaviourism Watson - only observable behaviour can be studied because thinking is subjective Understand behaviour exclusively through actions, doesn’t care what's inside The environment influences behaviour No subjectivity - helped psychology become a real science 4. Cognitivism - Piaget, heisser How thinking/ feeling changes behaviour How we interpret events, the process of interpretation Led to understanding of language 5. Psychoanalysis - Freud Unconscious drives - believe we have no control, has to be expressed Sexuality and aggression Slip of the tongue - not slips at all, its what has to be expressed Dreams - unconscious state Early experiences shape who we become Can’t falsify it, can’t research it Nature vs. Nurture What is the reason for our behaviour Genetics vs. environment Both influence, how much do each influence Darwin’s theory of natural selection We have adapted with certain features Evolutionary psychology Adaptive function - ptsd, or anxiety Is it adaptive or not Used to explain attraction, how function in groups 1/1000 - considered common Men with extra y more likely to be criminal Seen to be a “superman Double y - taller large hands, people with disabilities  More likely to be charged with crimes because they looked different Babies labeled before they could even walk Free will - determinism Do we have free will? Chaos ensues if we all do what we want We do not have fully free will We have options but our behaviour is controlled - determinism Skinner proposed that the environment dictated behaviour - why we don’t have free will. He says there is none. Ch.2 Why learn research methods Cause and effect, a causes b 1. Use research to properly assess variables - whether research/science was done properly 2. Draw own conclusions about results Hypothesis testing Make a prediction about what we would observe, to test 1. Should be able to make before Theory - general idea about 2 variables If prediction is correct it proves the theory If prediction is incorrect, have to change theory A good hypothesis 1. Clear - how variables interact 2. Predictive - key property, state as a prediction not a question, statement 3. Testable - have to be able to do it Giving principles for applying the scientific method Random selection - equal chance to be a participant 1. Non-random reduces generalized measures 1. Reliability - consistency of measurement 2. Validity - accuracy of measure, must measure what you say it measures Openness and transparency - allow for peer review Test, retest reliability - similar scores when ran multiple times, understood in the same way 1. Same participants do the same test and get same score Interrelated reliability - 2 different people see the same thing when they look at something 1. Have to agree on what we are seeing Types of research Naturalistic observation - no manipulation 1. Watching behaviour in real-world settings 2. High external validity - findings are generalizable to the world 3. Low internal validity - ability to draw cause-and-effect inference, not manipulating  limits 1. Susceptible to viewer bias, confirmation bias, own subjectivity influence what we see Case study - study of one 1. Studying one or a small number of people for an extended period of time 2. Breadth is traded for depth 3. Number of people 4. More information 5. Used to study rare brain damages or mental illness 6. Excellent for existence proofs but can be misleading or anecdotal Correlation designs 1. Examine the extent to which two variable are associated 2. Correlations range for -1 to +1 3. Positive: as one increases so does the other 4. Negative: as one increases, the other decreases 5. Zero: no relationship between variables Closer you get to a 1 is stronger 1. Can’t make a cause and effect statement from correlation 2. 3rd variable problem, affecting both Self-report and surveys 1. Require a subject to assess their own characteristics and provide their own opinions/views 2. People can lie 3. Easy to use, assess lots of variables in many people in a short amount of time 4. Phrasing of questions - accuracy is skewed for certain groups (narcissists) and traits (anxiety) 5. Potential dishonesty 6. Response sets - tendency of participants to distort their responses in a particular way 7. Malingering Rating data 1. Halo effect - tendency of rating of one positive characteristics to spill over to other ratings 2. Well-dressed people perceived as smart 3. Horns effect - tendency of ratings of one negative characteristic to spill over Experimental methods Cause and effect inferences Consists of 2 ingredients: random assignment of participants to conditions Manipulation of an independent variable Within - subjects 1. Experimental manipulations are made “within” the same individual Between - subjects 1. Experimental manipulations are made “between” groups How do I ethically run my study Three key things 1. Informed consent 2. Protection from harm and discomfort - participants can leave whenever they want 3. Debriefing - now's the time to tell participants what you actually were researching, what you deceived them of Animal research, psychology uses animals often in tests/experiments 1. Generates a lot of controversy 2. 7-8% published psychology research relies on animals 3. Canadian council on animal care, can’t do without purpose and practical significance Manipulation of variables Independent variable - variable that is manipulated Dependent variable - variable that is measured Operational definition - a specific definition of what is being measure Confounds To ensure cause-and-effect conclusions, the independent variable must be the only difference present in the study Confounding variable/confound - any variable that differs between the experimental and control groups other than the independent variable Pitfalls in experimental design Placebo effect - improvement resulting from the expectation of improvement 1. Participants must remain blind in placebo conditions Nocebo effect - feeling harm from the expectancy of harm Experimental expectancy effect - rosenthal effect 1. Occurs when researchers unintentionally bias the outcome of a study Demand characteristics 1. Cues that participants pick up during an experiment 2. The cues can generate guesses about the experiments hypothesis Statistics Descriptive statistics - describe variability Inferential statistics - apply statistics to general population Descriptive Numerical characteristics of the nature of the data Central tendency - where the group tends to cluster 1. Mean - average of all scores 2. Median - middle score of data 3. Mode - most frequent score in the data Dispersion How loosely or tightly bunched scores are Range Difference between the highest and lowest scores Standard deviation Measure of dispersion, accounting for how far each data point is from the mean Range vs. standard deviation Both have the same range, but very different standard deviations Standard deviations are less susceptible to extreme scores than ranges are Inferential statistics Allows us to determine whether we can generalize findings from the sample to the population Statistical significance: findings would have occurred by chance less than 1 to 20 times, not replicable anomaly Practical significance: real-world importance What does it mean to be ethical in psychology Not your typical science Studying people and animals Standards and precautions Ethics today, guidelines of research followed Rules and regulations Values Research Moral principles Ethical practices Rules of conduct Is what you are doing value based, is it good for society? Does it need to happen? Informed consent Participants must be informed about the study Allowed to ask questions If you deliberately mislead, ok if stay in other guidelines, have to prove there is no other way Ch.3 Neurons: the brain’s communicators Neurons are brain cells, specialized in communication with each other Approximately 100 billion neurons, with Unique shape compared to other cells Neuronal components Cell body (soma): centre of neuron; builds new cell components Dendrites: branchlike extensions that receive information from other neurons Axons: “tails” of the neuron that spread out from the cell body and transit information, travel in and out through tail to end of axon aka “terminal” Axon terminal Knob at the end of axon containing synaptic vesicles filled with neurotransmitters Neurotransmitters Chemical messengers that allow neuron to neuron communication Synapse Space between neurons through which NT’s travel Glial cells Glial means give Cells that are plentiful in the brain 1:1 2 main types 1. Astrocytes-star shaped, most abundant and increase reliability of neuronal transmission - found in blood-brain barrier 2. Oligodendrocytes - promotes new connections and produce the myelin sheath around axons Electrifying thought Neurons respond to NT’s by generating electrical activity Resting potential: when there are not NT’s acting on a neuron Action potential:occurs when there is enough of a charge inside the neuron (threshold) Action potential, around - 60 at rest Abrupt waves of electric discharge triggered by a change in charge inside the axon This is the neuron “firing” all-or-none response Originate near cell body and travel down the axon to the axon terminal, triggering release Neurons can fire 100 to 1000 times per second In between firings, there is a very brief absolute refractory period The longer the axon, the more limited their maximal firing rate is Neurotransmission Communication inside neurons is electrical, but communication between neurons is chemical is NT’s When NT’s are released, they bind with receptor sites of the next neuron Lock and key This process is halted by reuptake, when NT’s go back into the axon terminal - otherwise they die Some NT’s excite while other inhibit the nervous system Each NT has a specific role and function in brain and body function Types of neurotransmitters 1. Glutamate 2. GABA 3. Acetylcholine 4. Monoamines - norepinephrine, dopamine 5. Neuropeptides 6. Anandamides Glutamate and GABA Most common NT’s in the central nervous system Glutamate is excitatory and increase the chance neurons will communicate - schizophrenia GABA is inhibitory, dampening neural activity Acetylcholine Influences arousal, selective attention, sleep and memory Neurons that connect to muscles release acetylcholine to trigger movement Monoamines Norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin Monoamines only contain one amino acid Neuropeptides Short strings of amino acids Endorphins Anandamides Binds to same receptors as THC influences eating, motivation, memory, and sleep Psychoactive drugs Target the production or inhibition of certain NT’s and impact mood, arousal, or behaviour Opiates Neural plasticity Brains constantly changing and adapting Continue to learn after childhood Nervous system changing from learning or injury How do neurons change? 1. Growth - framework of house 2. Synaptogenesis - interior rooms 3. Myelination - insulation in house, speed up travel down axon 4. Pruning - death of neurons, retracting non-useful, renovations Synapses can change in 2 ways 1. By forming new ones 2. By strengthening pre-existing synapses - long term potentiation Structural plasticity Morris maze test Practicing makes more efficient, not perfect Adapt quickly to changing circumstances Enriched environment - building more pathways Most use of our nervous system Neural plasticity and neural damage Work with what's there, can’t make something new When something traumatic happens Empty spaces leave room for new senses/helpful tricks Adapted to use for something else, function Echolocation can be used in place of eyes sometimes Brain behaviour network Sensory information comes out of the central nervous system The nerves outside the CNS are called the peripheral nervous system CNS Divided into systems based off location and function 1. Forebrain: cerebral cortex-lobes, basal, ganglia 2. Limbic system: hypothalamus, thalamus, amygdala, hippocampus 3. Brain stem: RA’s, midbrain  4. Hindbrain: cerebellum, pons, medulla, spinal cord Cerebral cortex The forebrain is the most developed area of the human brain, giving us our advanced intellectual abilities Consists of two cerebral hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum which allows communication between them Majority of the forebrain is composed of the cerebral cortex Can be divided into 4 lobes, each associated with a different function Frontal lobes Assist in motor function, language, memory Oversee and organize most other brain functions Broca’s area The body is mapped onto motor cortex The prefrontal cortex is responsible for thinking, planning, and language Parietal lobe Specialized for touch and perception Contains the somatosensory cortex, while sensitive to pressure, pain, and temperatures Communicates information to the motor cortex every time we reach, grasp, or move, our eyes Temporal lobe Lower part of the cerebral cortex, it play a role in hearing, understanding language, and storing autobiographical memory Contains the auditory cortex and wernicke’s area, responsible for speech comprehension Occipital lobe Specialized for vision Located at the back of the brain Basal ganglia Forebrain structure that helps control movement Allows us to perform movements to obtain rewards and reinforcement Damage can contribute to parkinson's disease Limbic system The emotional centre of the brain that also has a role in smell, motivation, and memory Hypothalamus regulates and controls internal bodily states: controls the pituitary gland Thalamus relays information from the sense organs to primary sensory cortex Amygdala plays key role in fear, excitement, and arousal Hippocampus plays a role in spatial memory: damage causes inability to form new memories Brain stem Located at the very back of the brain Connects the cerebral cortex and spinal cord Performs some basic bodily functions Serves as a relay station between the cortex and rest of the nervous system Reticular activating system  Connects the forebrain and cerebral cortex and plays key role in arousal Damage can result in a coma, no arousal Midbrain Contributes to movement, tracking of visual stimuli, and reflexis triggered by sound Cerebellum Plays a predominant role in our sense of balance and enables us to coordinate movement and learn motor skills Pons Connects cortex to cerebellum and triggers dreams, important in dream states, connected to cerebral cortex Medulla Regulates breathing, automatic processes, vital functions Spinal cord The thick bundle of nerves that conveys signals between the brain and the body Sensory nerves carry information from body to the brain, motor nerves carry information from brain to the rest of the body, sensory goes up but motor goes down Also contains interneurons, which allow reflexes to happen, nerve pathway that ends in spinal cord Peripheral nervous system Nerves that extend outside the CNS divided into two branches Somatic nervous system conveys information from the CNS to the muscles in the body, controlling and coordinating voluntary movement Autonomic nervous system controls the involuntary actions of our internal organs and glands; has two divisions Endocrine system Tied to limbic system A system of glands and hormones controlling the secretion of bloode-borne chemical messengers Also helps regulate emotions Pituitary gland Controls the other glands in the body Controlled the hypothalamus Releases hormones that influence growth, blood pressure, and other functions This includes oxytocin, responsible for number of reproductive functions and plays role in maternal and romantic love, release of oxytocin Adrenal glands Located on top of the kidneys Emergency centre, releases adrenaline and cortisol during states of emotional arousal Adrenaline boosts energy production in muscle cells, restricts it in other, supports flight or fight Cortisol regulates blood pressure and cardiovascular function, as well as the use of proteins, carbohydrates Brain mapping methods Brain imaging for structure and function  Appearance Activity Phrenology was one of the earliest Falsified and discredited by the mid 1800s Examining persons with brain damage Electroencephalography Measures electrical activity via electrodes placed on the skull Can tell when regions of the brain are active during specific tasks Neuroimaging techniques allow us to see brain structure, function, or both Computed tomography (CT) Structure Uses multiple x-rays to construct three-dimensional images, more detail than normal x-ray Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) Structure Uses magnetic fields to indirectly visualize brain structure, radio waves, clearer than CT Positron emission tomography (PET) Function Measures consumption of glucose like molecules to give a picture of neural activity, radioactive glucose put into patient Functional MRI Function Uses magnetic fields to visualize brain activity Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) Applies strong and quickly changing magnetic fields to the surface of the skull that can either enhance or interrupt brain function, offers insite Magnetoencephalography (MEG) Track changes quickly Measures tiny magnetic fields generated by the brain, what brain areas are active Which area does what? Many areas of the brain are associated with a particular function (localization of function) However, complex tasks often require numerous parts working together Each region participates in many functions, so coordinates across multiple brain regions contributes to each function Human development We have chromosomes inside each cell’s nucleus that carry genes Humans have 46 chromosomes, 23 from each parent Our genotype is the set of genes we have, while our phenotype is our observable traits Genes can be dominant or recessive Behavioural genetics Studies the relative impact of nature and nurture on psychological traits Estimated heritability - percentage of the variability in a trait across individuals that due to genes Some traits are highly heritable (height) some are not (religious affiliation) Behavioural genetic designs Scientists use three types of designs to estimate heritability of traits Family studies Twin studies Adoption studies Determine how much both genes and environment contribute to a particular trait Critical hierarchies When sensory information enter the brain goes to primary sensory cortex, then to other areas Processing becomes increasingly complex as information is passed up the network EEG - electrical activity Infer whether patient is awake or asleep Infer what parts of brain are active while completing tasks Cheaper and not evasive Can be used on anybody Its not 100% accurate about where activity is happening Can only pick up whats close to skull Genes 1. chromosomes Slender threads of amino acids and proteins inside the cell's nucleus that contain genes 2. genes Genetic material composed of acid (DNA) 3. genome The full set of chromosomes within an organism and the heritable traits associated with those chromosomes 4. Genotype Our genetic makeup, passed from parent 5. Phenotype Our observable traits Dominant genes - masks other genes effects Recessive genes - genes that are expressed only in absence of dominant genes 6. Heritability Percentage of the variability in a trait across individuals that is due to genes Ch.4 Sensation Detection of physical energy by the sense organs All our senses rely on a handful of principles The external stimulus is converted by a sense receptor into neural activity via transduction Activation is highest when stimulus is first detected, then sensory adaptation occurss Perception  The brain’s interpretation of raw sensory data when the way we perceive a stimulus does not match reality, illusion Psychophysics Study of how we perceive sensory stimuli based on their physical characteristics Absolute threshold is the lowest level of a stimulus we can detect 50% of the times 1. A single candle 30 miles away 2. 50 odorant molecules Just noticeable difference is the smallest amount of stimulus change humans detect Signal detection theory Theory regarding how stimuli are detected under different conditions Cross-model sense Phosphenes, the McGurle effect (cross-model sense) and the rubber hand illusion Getting sent to multiple things messing up our senses This may help to explain synesthesia - hearing sounds when one sees colour or tasting colours When senses meet the brain After being transduced, our brains then organize the sensory data into meaningful concepts Our braine piece together 1. What’s in our sensory field 2. What was there a moment ago 3. What we remember from our past The role of attention Selective attention allows us to choose which sensory inputs to focus on and which to turn down The other “channels” are still being processed at some level though 1. Cocktail party effect - somewhat listening to something else We’re poor at detecting stimuli in plain sight if our attention is focused elsewhere Inattention blindness and change blindness are two similar phenomena 1. Don’t see cuz don’t give full attention Binding problem One of the great mysteries of psychology is just how our brains combine all the various stimuli around us into a coherent whole The look, feel, smell, and taste of an apple all rely on different areas of the brain to process, but, we just see an apple The visual system Humans respond to a narrow spectrum of light, which we can see Other animals may have a more restricted or greater spectrum The experience of colour depends on 1. Brightness: amount of light reflected back to the eye 2. Hue: the colour 3. Saturation: perceived purity of colour Mixing lights produce white (addictive) Mixing pigments produce black (subtractive) Structure of the eye Sclera: the white portion of the eye, what’s left over that pupil doesn’t cover Iris: the coloured portion and controls how much light enters the eye, controls the pupil Pupil: is the hole where light enters the eye, dilates=more comes in Cornea: transparent cells that focuses light on the back of the eye Lens: changes curvature (accommodation) to retract light onto back of eye Glasses change the way light enters the eye to help correct myopia or hyperopia, to far/behind retina, close up is blurry Retina: thin membrane at the back of the eye Fovea: is in its center is responsible for acuity Light hits two types of sense receptors on the retina-rods and cones 1. Dark adaptation The optic nerve exits the back of the eye and is composed of the axons of ganglion cells 1. Causes a blind spot Most of the axons go to the thalamus and then the visual cortex, but some go to midbrain Rod receptors Achromatic Low contrast Light sensitive Night vision Cone photoreceptors Colour Fine detail Not light sensitive Day vision Visual perception Different cortical cells respond maximally to different types of stimuli Feature detector cells allow us to detect lines and edges 1. Sample cells: orientation - specific slits of light in a particular location 2. Complex cells: orientation - specific but less dependent on location Colour perception Different theories of colour perception, explain different aspects of our ability to detect colour Trichromatic theory says colour vision is based on our sensitivity to three primary colours: blue, green, red 1. Consistent with three types of cones in eyes 2. Explains colour blindness Opponent process theory sees colour vision as a function of complementary, opposing colours 1. Red vs. green or blue vs. yellow When we can’t see Blindness results in heightened touch, and reorganization of visual cortex Motion blindness: inability to perceive seamless motion  Visual agnosia: object recognition deficit; damage to higher visual cortical areas Blindsight: above-chance visual performance of cortically blind individuals with damage to area V1 Hearing Audition (our sense of hearing) is the sense we rely on most after sight Sound is simply vibration travelling through a medium (usually air) and has 1. Pitch: wave frequency (Hz) 2. Loudness: amplitude of the sound waves (dB) 3. Timbre: complexity of sound, like purity of colour Perceptual set Expectations influence our perceptions Perceptual hypothesis Perceptual constancy allows is to perceive stimuli consistently across conditions We don’t see the size, shape, or colour of an object changing despite the objective fact that they do change Colour perception in particular derives from context Gestalt principles Rules that govern how we perceive object as wholes within their overall context 1. Proximity 2. Similarity 3. Continuity 4. Closure 5. Symmetry 6. Figure-ground Visual perception To determine motion, the brain compares visual frames of what is to what was 1. Phi phenomenon Depth perception Monocular depth cues rely on one eye 1. Relative size 2. Texture gradient 3. Interposition 4. Linear perspective 5. Height in plane 6. Light and shadow The ear Outer: pinna (the part we see, skin and cartilage flap) and ear canal. Together they tunnel sound waves to the eardrum Middle: the ossicles (hammer, anvil, stirrup) vibrate and transmit sound to the inner ear Inner: the cochlea converts vibration into neural activity. Inside the cochlea the organ of corti and basilar membrane convert auditory information into action potentials Pitch perception Different tones excite different areas of the basilar membrane and primary auditory cortex  Place theory: the specific location along the basilar membrane matches a specific pitch. Accounts for high tones Frequency theory: the rate neurons fire action potentials reproduces the pitch. Accounts for low tones Smell and taste Oflacation (smell) and gustation (taste) work hand in hand. Described as the “chemical senses” Work together to enhance liking or disliking of some foods Odus are airborne chemicals that interact with lining in our nasal passages We are sensitive to five basic tastes 1. Sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami 2. Some evidence for a “fatty” taste as well Smell and taste sense receptors Each olfactory neuron contains a single type of receptor, which recognizes odurants based on their shape The tongue contains separate taste buds (papillae) for each base taste 1. Tongue tap myth 2. Supertastes Olfactory and gustatory perception Although they take different paths, our smell and taste senses converge in the orbitofrontal lobe Our body senses Three body systems that work in tandem Somatosensory (touch and pain) Proprioception (kinetic sense) Vestibular sense (equilibrium and balance) Somatosensory system Responds to stimuli applied to skin, temperature, and injury We sense these with specialized nerve endings in the skin (mechanoreceptors) and free nerve endings Pain sensations Pain comes in many types, usually related to the pain-causing stimulus Some are more sensitive to pain, maybe due to the emotional component 1. Gate control model Body position and balance Proprioception, our kinesthetic sense, helps us keep track of where we are and more efficiently Muscle stretch receptors vs. tendon force detectors Vestibular sense, our sense of equilibrium, enables us to sense and maintain our balance as we move about Due to three fluid filled semicircular canals in the inner ear The multitasking brain We attend to multiple senses at once, called parallel processing Bottom-up vs. top-down processing Depth perception pt.2 Binocular depth cues require both eyes 1. Binocular 2. Binocular convergence Visual cliff Hesitation as young as 6 months old Demonstrates that depth perception is partly innate and a result of experience Misperception:why? Understanding why we misperceive information provides insight into how we make sense of our surroundings When perception deceives us Muller-lyer illusion Ponzo illusion Horizontal-vertical illusions Ebbinghaus-titchener illusions Subliminal information processing We process many sensory inputs unconsciously and many of our actions occur with little to no forethought or deliberation If we can detect stimuli without knowing it, does that change our behaviour Subliminal perception The process many sensory information that occurs below the level of conscious awareness Can have a brief, short-term impact on behaviours and attitudes Effect disappears when subjects are aware of or suspect subliminal influences Fairly unlikely to produce large-scale or enduring attitudes or decisional changes Subliminal self-help tapes have been shown to be ineffective )illusory placebo effect) Reversed subliminal messages also ineffective, ie. playing a record backwards Ch.5 Consciousness Our subjective experience of the world, our bodies, and our mental perspectives Why we need sleep Learning, long-term memory information, and emotional Immune system Problem solving Neural connectivity Energy conservation Biology of sleep Our circadian rhythm is cyclical biological changes that occur on a roughly 24 hour basis Includes hormone release and body temperature Regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus or biological clock of the hypothalamus Falling asleep is triggered by an increase in melatonin Disruptions of circadian rhythm can cause numerous health problems How much sleep  Newborns - 16 hrs College and uni students - 9 hrs Most people 7-10 hrs People with DEC2 mutation - 6 hrs or less Sleep deprivation Building sleep debt can have numerous negative consequences 1. Weight gain 2. Depression 3. Increase risk for cardiovascular problems 4. Decreased immune system Stages of sleep We cycle through 5 stages of sleep of sleep in roughly 90 minute cycles Stages 1-4 is non-REM sleep 1. No eye movements, fewer dreams Stage 5 is REM sleep 1. Vivid dreams Stage 1 5-10 minutes Hypnagogic imagery Theta waves Myoclonic jerks - twitching/muscle spasms Stage 2 10-30 minutes Sleep spindles and k-complexes As much as 65% of total sleep Stage 3 and 4 15-30 minutes Delta waves Crucial to feel rested Suppressed by alcohol Children spend more time in NREM ¾ than elderly individuals Stage 5 10-20 minutes REM sleep Antonia (cannot move) Brain activity similar to wakefulness Becomes longer as the night goes on Dreams NREM 1. Shorter 2. More though-like 3. Repetitive 4. Concerned with daily tasks REM  1. More dreams 2. Emotional, illogical 3. Prone to plot shifts 4. Biological crucial REM facts Paradoxical because our bodies are paralyzed but our brains are active REM rebound occurs when we don’t rest well for several nights Function of the eye movement is unknown Muscles in middle ear are also active RBM - act out dreams in sleep/stem doesn’t function (properly) Lucid dreaming Sleep and being awake may not be as distinct as one thought Lucid dreaming occurs when you know that a dream is a dream Some report being able to control dreams 1. May help with nightmares but not other problems Sleep disorders Widespread and costly problem Most common is insomnia 1. Can be treated, when stop taking meds it comes back 2. Difficulty going to, staying asleep, or early waking 3. High rated with depression, pain, medical conditions 4. Lower pain tolerance Narcolepsy is the rapid and unexpected onset of sleep 1. Caused by sudden emotional reactions 2. Can fall asleep anywhere 3. Some can experience cataplexy as well 4. Chronic disorder, less neurons 5. Body drops to sleep but you are conscious 6. Due to lack of orexin production Sleep apnea is caused by the blockage of the airway during sleep 1. Lack of oxygen in brain 2. May wake briefly hundreds of times per night, causing fatigue and other health problem Night terrors are sudden waking episodes characterized by screaming, perspiring, and confusion followed by a return to a deep sleep 1. The person going through it doesn’t know its happening 2. Most common in children, harmless 3. Best to just let it happen Sleepwalking occurs in 15-30% of children and 3-5% of adults 1. Safe to wake up, occurs during NREM sleep Dreams Culturally based, usually not fun Unsure exactly why we dream but involved in: 1. Processing emotional memories  2. Integrating new experiences with established memories 3. Learning new strategies and ways of doing things 4. Stimulating threatening events so we can better cope with them in everyday life 5. Reorganizing and consolidating memories Freud’s dream protection theory Dreamwork, disguise urges as symbols Dreams transform our sexual and aggressive instincts into symbols that represent wish fulfillment Keep in check by using ego, ego is smaller when asleep These require interpretation to reveal their true meaning Must all be positive 1. Manifest vs. latent content 2. ADHOC - don’t know what the symbol means yet Rejected by most scientists due to lack of evidence Most dreams are negative in context Very few sexual dreams Straightforward dream content Post-trauma nightmares Activation-synthesis theory All dreams Random neural activity Dreams reflect the brain’s attempt to make sense of random and internally generated neural signals during REM, acytoclolyne increases, activat, sends incomplete info to forebrain These signals originate in the pons and move to forebrain in dreaming Memory, reasoning, reflective thinking gone Dreaming and the forebrain Pons don’t play a huge role in dreaming Alternatives to AST emphasize role of forebrain in dreaming Must be mostly driven by motivation and emotion in forebrain Damage to forebrain and parietal lobes can eliminate dreams completely, even if pons are intact Dreams are consistent over time, not random as AST would predict Neurocognitive theory Thoughts in dreams Dreams are a meaningful product of our cognitive capacities, which shape what we dream about Themes from waking lives/mimics, patterns/consistency, movies away from random neuron firing 1. “Cognitive achievements” Children dreams are simple, lacking movement, while adult dreams are bizarre and complex Alterations in consciousness Hallucinations are realistic perceptual experiences in the absence of external stimuli  Hearing with no sounds/seeing with no vision Brain activates in the same way for hallucinations as for “real” sensory experiences Relatively normal experience 10-35% of people report having had at least one Out-of-body experience (OBE): sense that our consciousness has left our body More likely with hallucinations More commonly reported by those who have other unusual experiences A scrambling of sensory information may be the reason Can have induced out-of-body experience due to trauma OBE’s are reported during near-death experiences These differ cross culturally in response to expectations about the afterlife Can be experimentally triggered via stimulation of temporal lobes, which is responsible for familiarity Fail to communicate between brain regions Mystical experiences involve a sense of unity or oneness with the world At peace with oneself Often religious in nature, and can be induced via fasting, seizures, prayer, and drugs Hypnosis Suggestion, process - step by step A set of techniques that provides people with suggestions for alterations in perceptions, thoughts, feelings, and behaviours In widespread uses as adjunctive therapy, but not effective alone Dissociation, doing something automatic Important for hypnosis People feel relaxed Not unique in any way Tendency to think things based off what other say Strong empathy makes you more suggestible by others 15-20% of people are of high suggestibility Theories of hypnosis Social Cognitive theory - a persons approach to hypnosis is based on their attitudes, beliefs, and experiences Existing attitudes Can’t force someone to do something they don’t want to do it under hypnosis Dissociation theory - hypnosis is based on a separation between personality functions that are normally well integrated Doesn’t necessarily blackout Weren’t attending to what you were doing Drugs and consciousness Legal and illegal drugs can cause large changes in our state of consciousness Called psychoactive drugs, they contain chemicals similar to those found naturally in our brains Mental set and setting have a large impact on how these drugs impact individuals Substance abuse and dependence  Abuse causes recurrent problems associated with use of the drug Dependence is usually serious, leading to clinically significant impairment or distress 1. Tolerance and withdrawal symptoms 2. Physical and psychological dependence Use and abuse explanations Sociocultural influences and acceptance Addictive personality is not true, but certain personality traits do influence use Reinforcing “self-medication” cycle Genetic influence Psychoactive drugs Contain chemicals similar to those found naturally in brain Mental set and setting have a large impact on how these drugs impact individuals Depressants Depress the CNS (slow things down) 1. Initial high followed by sleepiness, slower thinking, and impaired concentration Alcohol 1. Low doses - stimulating 2. High doses - depressant 3. Blood alcohol content (BAC) - 0.05-0.10 4. Females experience effects more heavily than males Sedative - hypnotics 1. Assists with anxiety or insomnia 2. High doses: unconsciousness, coma, death stimulants 1. Excite the CNS (speed things up) 2. Increase heart rate, respiration, and blood pressure 3. Nicotine, caffeine, cocaine, and amphetamines nicotine 1. Found in tobacco 2. Activates acetylcholine 3. Adjustive value Cocaine 1. Most powerful stimulant 2. Increases dopamine and serotonin amphetamines 1. Lots of side effects 2. Pill and injection forms 3. Methamphetamines (crystal meth) narcotics 1. Endorphins 2. Opiate drugs that relieve pain and induce sleep 3. Includes heroin, morphine, codeine 4. Derived from opium poppy 5. Increases feeling of energy  heroin 1. Inhibitory 2. Slow down so much heart and brain can stop 3. Strong sense of euphoria 4. Most abused 5. Very addictive 6. Strong withdrawal symptoms, cramping, vomit, sweat, shake, hallucinate psychedelics 1. Hallucinogens marijuana 1. More damage than nicotine 2. Most used in canada 3. Impair cognitive function 4. High risk of lung and respiratory disease lsd 1. Produces feelings of clear thought and changes in sensation and perception 2. Possibility for a “bad trip” ecstasy 1. Stimulant and hallucinogenic 2. Causes huge release of serotonin 3. Long term abuse: high BP, depression, neuron damage Features of substance dependence Tolerance: when people need to consume an increased amount of a drug to achieve intoxication Withdrawal symptoms: the unpleasant physical reaction that accompanies The process of ceasing to take a drug Physical dependence: when people continue to take a drug to avoid withdrawal symptoms Psychological dependence: when someone continues to use a drug because they are motivated by intense cravings, even though use of the drug creates problems in relationships or at work Ch.6 Learning Change in an organisms behaviour or thought as a result of experience Responding to stimuli less or more over time Learning via association Large amounts of learning occur through association Simple associations provided the mental building blocks for more complex ideas Classical vs. operant conditioning Classical A form of learning in which animals come to respond to a previously neutral stimulus that elicits automatic response Neutral stimulus - not yet associated  Unconditional stimulus - on its own already elicits response Unconditioned response - associated one thing with another Conditioned stimulus - learned reaction to something Conditioned response - similar to unconditioned response, strength is less than unconditioned principles 1. Acquisition - gradually learn and acquire conditioned response 2. Extinction - lose the conditioned response, present stimulus by itself 3. Spontaneous recovery - comes back, not extinct, learning interference, different environments 4. Stimulus generalization - stimulus similar, same response 5. Stimulus discrimination - picky about stimulus, less pronounced response to different stimulus Higher order conditioning Process where organisms develop classically conditioned responses to CS’s associated with the original CS Becomes weaker the farther from the original CS Applications of CC Advertisers repeatedly pair their products with stimuli that elicit positive emotions Can show positive latent inhibition 1. Resistance to conditioning because its been paired alone too often Helps to explain how and why we acquire some fears and phobias Can also help to treat phobias The conditioned compensatory response (CCR) is a CR that is the opposite of the UCR and serves to compensate for the UCR Important for understanding drug responses Always take a drug in the same room, that room acts as a cue which signals drug delivery Simply being in the room will initiate a defensive response which prepares you for the drug’s effects fetishes/disgust Sexual attraction to non living things Disgust reactions are tied to stimuli that are biologically important to us and hard to overcome Operant conditioning Behaviourists, operates Learning controlled by the consequences of the organisms behaviour Also called instrumental conditioning Reinforcement Punishment Discriminative stimulus Applications of OC Animal training using shaping by successive approximations and chaining Development of superstitious behaviour  Using token economies in clinical settings to shape desired behaviours 1. Primary and secondary reinforcers Applied behaviour analysis for language deficits in autism Combining CC and OC Two - process theory of anxiety says it begins by classical conditioning, but is maintained by negative reinforcement Skinner and radical behaviorism Early behaviourists did not believe that thinking played much of a role in hearing Thought that thinking and emotions are behaviours, just covert ones Psychologists acknowledge at least some role of cognition S-R vs. S-O-R Stimulus - response has given way to stimulus-organism-response The way an organism responds to a stimulus depends on what the stimulus means to it Believe that CC and OC depend on thinking Latent learning Refers to learning that is not directly observable 1. Competence vs. performance Implies that reinforcement is not necessary for learning to occur Observational learning Learning by watching others Don’t have to engage in trial and error to learn how to do something new Bandura’s research on observing aggression Reel and real world violence Only sometimes, changes how interactions are supposed to look Many types of research has examined the impact of violence media on behaviour Results suggest that media violence impacts real-world aggression in some cases But, media violence is only one small contributor to real-world aggression Mirror neurons Become activated when an animal observes or performs an action May play a role in observational learning and having empathy for others Insight learning - koehler Suggests huma and some other animals may gain insight Biological influences on learning Conditioned taste aversions 1. Eat or consume something you learn to never eat something again 2. Never goes away 3. CS-UCS developed after only one trial 4. CS-UCS can have very long delays 5. Show little generalization 6. Problem for cancer patients 7. Contradicts equipotentiality Preparedness for certain phobias also contradicts equipotentiality We are evolutionarily predisposed to be more afraid of certain things 1. Snakes and spiders vs. cars and guns  2. All stimuli are not equal May makes us develop illusory correlations 1. Sometimes link 2 things 2. Think there is cause and effect Tendency for animals to return to innate behaviours following repeated reinforcement is called instinctive drift Biological influences place limits on what kinds of behaviours we can train through reinforcement Ch.7 Memory The retention of information over time Our memories are surprisingly good in some situations, and surprisingly bad in other The paradox of memory Paradox of memory The same mechanisms that serve us well most of the time can cause us problems in others Amazing feats of memory But memory is also surprisingly malleable Our brains will often go beyond the available information to make sense of the world Generally adaptive, but makes us prone to errors Reconstructive memory When remembering, we actively reconstruct memories, not passively reproduce them Observer memory vs. field memory Three systems of memory 1. Sensory: up to a few seconds Some information we attend is passed on 2. Short-term (working) memory: up to 20 seconds without rehearsal Material is processed and some is passed on 3. Long-term memory: in some cases, up to a lifetime Each sense has its own form of sensory memory vision is call iconic memory lasts about one second, and is gone Short-term memory Memory system that retains information for limited durations Related to working memory Very brief in duration, 5-20 seconds We can lose information in our STM due to two different processes Decay-fades over time Interference-loss of information due to competition of new incoming information 2 types of interference 1. Retroactive happens when learning new information hampers something previously learned 2. Proactive happens when earlier learning gets in the way of learning something new Both are more likely to occur when old and new stimuli are similar Short-term memory Rehearsal, repeating information is STM, extends the duration of it: 1. Maintenance rehearsal is simply repeating the stimuli in the same form 2. Elaborative rehearsal links stimuli to each other in a meaningful way Elaborative is usually more effective, consistent with levels of processing model Three levels: visual, phonological, and semantic Visual is the most shallow, phonological somewhat less, and semantic is the deepest Long-term memory Relatively enduring store of information Includes facts, experiences, and skills we’ve developed over time Differs from STM in several ways Predicting what we remember Primacy effect shows up in remembering first Recency effect shows up in remembering recently More likely to remember odd or distinctive Types of LTM Explicit, divided into: semantic and episodic 1. The process of recalling information intentionally 2. Semantic memory (knowledge of facts) 3. Episodic memory (events in our lives) Implicit, multiple types: procedural, priming, conditioning, habituation 1. Recalling information that we don’t remember deliberately 2. Unlocking our front door 3. Tying our shoelaces 4. Includes habituation, classical conditioning, and other forms of learning Types of implicit memory Procedural memory refers to motor skills and habits 1. Riding a bicycle, touch typing Priming is our ability to identify a stimulus more easily or more quickly after we’ve encountered similar stimuli Three processes of memory Encoding is getting information into memory Storage is keeping information in memory Retrieval is the reactivation or reconstruction of information from memory Encoding To encode it, we must first attend to it Most events we experience are never encoded in the first place The next-in-line effect and memory for common objects Mnemonics are learning aid that enhances recall Depend on something you already know Types mnemonics Pegward method Method of loci Keyword method  Acronyms Paired with music Storage How we store our experiences in memory depends on our interpretations and expectations of them Schemas are organized knowledge structure or mental model that we’ve stored in memory Schemas give us frames of reference and allow us to interpret new situations Useful, but tend to oversimplify information Why paradox of memory exists Retrieval Many types of forgetting are failures of retrieval, which is reconstructive Using retrieval cues can help to access information in long-term memory Measuring memory makes us of the “3 Rs” Measuring memory recall - generating previously remembered information Recognition - selecting previously remembered information from an array of options Relearning - we require something learned before much faster Law of distributed vs. massed practice Studying information in small increments over a large amount of time is much more effective than studying large increments over a brief amount of time Tip-of-the-tongue Retrieval failure - often always on the tip of our tongue Encoding specificity More likely to remember something when the conditions at the same time of encoding are also present at retrieval Two kinds: context-dependent learning and state-dependent learning Context-dependent learning Superior retrieval when the external context of the original memories matches the retrieval context Slates-dependent learning Superior retrieval of memories when the organism is in the same psychological or physiological state as it was during encoding Can extend to mood-dependent learning and the retrospective dias Biology of memory Memories of different types of experiences are stored in different brain regions Long-term potential is the gradual strengthening of the connections among neurons from repetitive stimulation LTP plays a key role in learning, hippocampus plays a key role in forming memories There is not, however, an engram Amnesia Destroying hippocampus leaves implicit memory intact New memories affected Most common types are  1. Retrograde (loss of past memories) 2. Anterograde (loss of ability to make new memories) 3. Generalized amnesia is very rare, as is sudden recovery of memory Emotional memory The amygdala and hippocampus interact to give us emotional memories Amygdala helps recall emotions associated with fearful events Hippocampus helps us recall the events themselves Erasing memories Some emotional memories are distressing Pharmacological treatments during memory recall may affect the emotional value of the memory Drugs such as propranolol may be effective at doing this Need for more research Biology of memory deterioration Usually begin to show some declines after 65, but not always Alzheimer’s disease is the most frequent cause of dementia Show memory and language losses, consistent with cortical loss Alzheimer’s disease Research shows that those with active lifestyles are less likely to develop AD Greater education and intellectual activity are related to lower AD rates Memory over time Changes as we age, but shows the same basic processes throughout life Children’s memories increase in sophistication Memory span increases with age This increases with conceptual understanding Develop meta-memory skills Infantile amnesia Inability of adults to retrieve accurate memories before 2-3 years old Hippocampus is only partially developed in infants; lack of sense of self No evidence for use of hypnotic age regression or other techniques to “beat” this False memories Flashbulb memories are very vivid, able to be recalled in detail much later They change over time, and are often inaccurate when compared to initial memories Ch. 11 Discrete emotions theory Humans experience a small number of distinct emotions, even if they combine in complex ways Emotion have biological roots and serve evolutionary function Emotions (limbic system) precede our thought about If evolutionary in nature, emotions should be universal Primary emotions Anger, fear, surprise, disgust, sadness, contempt Combine other emotions to create secondary emotions Cultural differences in expression Cultures differ in display rules, how and when to express emotion Does not influence emotion itself, but instead its overt expression Emotions and physiology Able to differentiate some primary emotions physiologically 1. Heart rate increase with negative emotions 2. Digestive system slows down with fear Not all are different, though 1. Happy and sad look same in brain scans 2. Multiple brain regions active in all emotion Real vs. fake emotions Certain aspects of facial expression allow us to tell when someone is showing a genuine emotion Cognitive theories of emotion Posit that emotions are products of thinking, rather than the other way around No discrete emotions, as many emotions as there are kinds of thoughts Theories include James-Lange, Cannon-bard, somatic marker and the two-factor theory of emotion James-lange theory: emotions result from our interpretations of our bodily reactions to stimuli Cannon-Bard theory: an emotion-provoking event leads simultaneously to an emotion and bodily reaction Damasio’s somatic marker theory says that we use our “gut reactions” to gauge how we should act Two-factor theory states that emotions are produced by an undifferentiated arousal with an attribution of that arousal Unconscious influences on emotion Many emotional reactions may be generated automatically Subliminal exposure to positive or negative cues influential moods Mere exposure effect and liking more familiar stimuli Facial feedback hypothesis states that you are more likely to feel emotions that correspond to you facial features Supporting research, but could be due to classical conditioning Nonverbal expression of emotion Large amounts of emotionally expression is nonverbal Facial expressions, gestures, postures Nonverbal leakage is often a powerful cue that we are trying to hide an emotion Very important to communicate Emblems Nonverbal gestures that are symbols of signs Meaning is often culture specific Body language and gestures Posture can communicate emotion, such as though illustrators or manipulators Emblems are more culture-specific gestures  Ok sign, waving, thumbs up Personal space Proxemics is the study of personal space 1. Public 2. Social 3. Personal 4. Intimate 5. Moderate cultural and sex differences Lying and lie detection Little to no correlation between people’s confidence in their ability to detect lies and their accuracy Polygraph “Lie detector” test that rests on the assumption of a pinocchio response Records autonomic activity Not admissible in most courts of law Yields high rates of false positives Its biased against the innocent Other lie detection methods Guilty knowledge test 1. Brain fingerprinting using imaging techniques Integrity test 1. All have less than perfect records of detecting lies, some have false-positive rates also Positive psychology Subfield of psychology that has sought to emphasize human strengths Attempts to help people incorporate “character strengths and virtues” in life 1. Curiosity, love, gratitude May not benefit everyone What happiness is good for May produce enduring physical and psychological benefits Broaden and build theory says happiness predisposed us to think more openly, allowing us to see the “big picture” Optimists vs. pessimists Forecasting happiness We are very bad at affective forecasting, displaying a consistent durability bias Our moods tend to adapt to external circumstances We bounce up and down around our happiness “set point” but rarely move far Interpersonal attraction Influenced by a number of social factors 1. Proximity and nearness 2. The more similar, the more likely to be attracted 3. Reciprocity 4. Level of physical attraction Sex difference in attractions  Inhales place more emphasis on looks and younger, women on financial resources and older Both place a premium on intelligence, dependability, and kindness Evolutionary vs. social role models of explanation What is attractive Cross culturally, men and women tend to agree on who is and is not attractive Men like hip-to-waist ratios around.7, female like higher ones “Just average” The more “average” a face is, the more highly rated it is as attractive Holds up across cultures Averageness could indicate lack of genetic mutations Love Theorists don’t agree on the types of love Hatfield and Rapson’s passionate and companionate love Sternberg’s triangular theory of love and three major element Motivation-drive reduction theory The drives - especially wants and needs-that-propel us in specific directions 1. Drives reduction theory - certain drives motivate us to act in ways that minimize aversive states 2. Homeostasis “Motivational speakers” do not actually cause any long-term change in people’s behaviours Most powerful: sex and hunger When drives clash While certain drives lead us to approach, others lead to avoidance 1. Approach-avoidance 2. Approach-approach 3. Avoidance-avoidance 4. Double approach-avoidance Motivation-incentive theories Incentive theories propose that we are often motivated by positive goals 1. Intrinsic vs. extrinsic motivations Some needs take precedence over others 1. Primary (biological) and secondary (psychological) Hunger and eating The brain is the center for food cravings 1. Lateral (initiating) and ventromedial (stopping) Hormones also play a strong role 1. Ghrelin communicates with the hypothalamus to increase hunger 2. Cholecystokinin counteracts the effects of ghrelin to decrease hunger Glucostatic theory argues that hunger is related to the level of glucose in the blood 1. Glucose levels drop in blood, hunger creates drive to eat to restore glucose levels 2. Achieve homeostasis: balance energy in and out Weight gain and obesity Chemical messengers 1. Stored fat cells increase hormone leptin-signals hypothalamus/brain stem to reduce appetite and increase the amount of energy used 2. Obese may lack gene for leptin and seem resistance to its effects Set point theory - establishes a range of body fat and muscle mass we tend to maintain 1. Mixed research to support this Genes also play a role 1..7-.9 correlation for identical twins fat mass if raised together.4-.7 if not Expectation and external cues’ role 1. Portion distortion and the unit bias 2. Cues can be motivating Eating disorders Individuals with bulimia nervosa engage in recurrent binge eating, followed by efforts to minimize weight gain purging Most common eating disorder; affects 1-3% of the population Primarily female, report high levels of body dissatisfaction Anorexia nervosa is less common and more dangerous Individuals tend to become emancipated, often losing 25-50% of their body weight More culturally and historically universal than bulimia 1. Fueled by sociocultural pressures to be thin 2. Guilt often follows eating Sexual motivation Sexual desire is influenced by genes, biology, and social and cultural factors Neurotransmitters serotonin and dopamine appear to play a role along with testosterone Males desire sex more frequently, women experience more variability in their sex drive Socialization may influence sex drives Human sexual response Cycle contains four phases 1. Excitement phase-pleasure, physiological 2. Plateau phase - tension 3. Orgasm phase - involuntary 4. Resolution phase - return to unstimulated state Effects of sexual behaviour As people age, frequency of sex decreases but satisfaction does not Social norms help shape the way people express sexual desire Kissing in western cultures Biting off eyebrows in apinaly tribe of brazil Sexual orientation Same-sex behaviour has been documented in over 450 species Approximately 2.8% of males and 1.4% of females identify as queer APA sees same-sex attraction as a normal variation of human sexuality, and does not support use of therapy to change orientations Evidence from twin studies show that genes influence sexual orientation  Bem’s “exotic becomes erotic” Sexual orientation is most likely a complex interaction of genetic, biological, social, and cultural factors Certain differences in brain structure and hormone levels have been observed