Psychology Past Paper PDF

Powerpoint - Week #1: Psychology is defined as a science that involves systematic research methods. Major perspectives in psychology include neuroscience, psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, and humanistic approaches. The importance of scientific skepticism is highlighted to evalu...

Powerpoint - Week #1: Psychology is defined as a science that involves systematic research methods. Major perspectives in psychology include neuroscience, psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, and humanistic approaches. The importance of scientific skepticism is highlighted to evaluate claims and avoid pseudoscience. Key principles of scientific thinking include ruling out rival hypotheses, considering causation versus correlation, and ensuring the falsifiability of claims. Research methods in psychology encompass case studies, surveys, and experimental designs. Replication of studies is crucial for validating findings and ensuring reliability. Ethical guidelines are essential when conducting research involving human participants. The contributions of founding women in psychology are acknowledged, showcasing their impact on the field. Understanding correlations is vital, but it is emphasized that correlation does not imply causation. Psychological Research Methods Video: Summary Psychological research is essential for understanding human behavior, challenging intuition, and avoiding biases through rigorous scientific methods. 🍕 Highlights ☕ - Week-old pizza won't cause hallucinations; intuition can be misleading. 🔍 - Coffee doesn't necessarily make you smarter; common misconceptions exist. 🧪 - Hindsight bias can distort our perception of past events and reinforce false intuitions. - Operationalizing questions is crucial for scientific research; clear definitions lead to 📊 replicable studies. 🧠 - Surveys and case studies help gather data but can lead to biases and over-generalizations. 🔬 - Correlation doesn't imply causation; multiple factors may influence behavior. - Experiments isolate variables to establish cause-and-effect relationships in psychological research. ⚖️ Key Insights - Intuition vs. Evidence: Our intuitions about behavior can often be wrong. Relying solely on personal experiences can lead to erroneous conclusions, highlighting the need for empirical research. -🧩 The Importance of Replication: Psychological findings must be replicable to ensure reliability. Non-replicable studies can mislead and foster misconceptions that persist in popular 📋 belief. - The Role of Sampling: Random sampling is critical for accurate representation in surveys. 🔄 Biased samples can skew results and misinform conclusions about populations. - The Nature of Correlations: Recognizing the difference between correlation and causation is vital. Without controlled experiments, assumptions about relationships can lead to incorrect 🧪 interpretations. - Experimentation Methods: Controlled experiments are necessary to isolate variables and determine causal effects. These methods help reduce confounding variables and enhance the 🔍 validity of findings. - Awareness of Biases: Understanding biases like overconfidence and hindsight bias is 📖 crucial for interpreting research results. Awareness can aid in more objective evaluations of data. - The Scientific Method: Employing the scientific method in psychology enhances understanding of behavior through structured inquiry, ultimately leading to more accurate insights into human nature. PowerPoint Week #2 - Neuroscience & Behaviour Slide 1: Learning Objectives Understand the basic anatomy of the nervous system. Describe how messages are sent within the brain and body. Examine common brain imaging techniques. Explore the lobes of the brain and their functions. Discover complexities of hemispheric lateralization. Discuss genetic and epigenetic influences. Slide 2: Anatomy of the Nervous System Glial Cells: Provide structural support, insulation, and communication. Neurons: The primary communicators in the nervous system. ○ Soma: Contains the nucleus and cell body. ○ Dendrites: Receive messages from neighboring cells. ○ Axon: Transmits messages away from the cell body. Slide 3: Neurons: The Brain’s Communicators  Specialized nerve cells that: ○ Send messages to other neurons. ○ Receive messages from other neurons. ○ Produce neurotransmitters. Slide 4: Neuronal Components Cell Body (Soma): Produces proteins and neurotransmitters. Dendrites: Branch-like extensions that receive information. Axons: Transmit information to other neurons. Slide 5: Glial Cells Support neurons by: ○ Providing scaffolding. ○ Transporting nutrients and waste. ○ Mediating immune responses. ○ Insulating axons with myelin sheath. Slide 6: Neuronal Components Continued Axon Terminal: Contains synaptic vesicles with neurotransmitters. Synaptic Vesicles: Release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft. Slide 7: Synapses Structures allowing neurons to pass signals. ○ Presynaptic Part: Located on the axon. ○ Postsynaptic Part: Located on a dendrite or soma. ○ Dendrites of nearby neurons pick up neurotransmitters. Slide 8: How Messages Move Through the System Neurons Fire: Governed by the all-or-none law. ○ Neurons either fire or do not fire based on stimulation. ○ Intensity is determined by the frequency of firing. Slide 9: Resting Potential Neurons at rest have a negative charge (-70 millivolts). Action potential occurs when the threshold is reached. Slide 10: Action Potential Electrical impulses travel down the axon, triggering neurotransmitter release. Slide 11: Refractory Periods Absolute Refractory Period: No action potential can occur. Relative Refractory Period: Neuron can fire but requires a stronger stimulus. Slide 12: Neurotransmitters Excitatory and Inhibitory: Each has distinct messages. Chemical carriers facilitate communication between neurons. Slide 13: Bridging the Gap Neurotransmitters carry messages across the synapse. Slide 14: Types of Neurotransmitters Excitatory: Increases likelihood of neuron firing. Inhibitory: Decreases likelihood of neuron firing. Slide 15: Key Neurotransmitters Acetylcholine: Involved in muscle movement and memory. Glutamate: Role in memory formation. GABA: Primary inhibitory neurotransmitter. Slide 16: Dopamine Involved in reward pathways; overproduction linked to schizophrenia. Slide 17: Serotonin Regulates mood, sleep, and appetite; linked to depression and anxiety. Slide 18: Endorphins Natural painkillers; similar to opiates in function. Slide 19: The Developing Brain Myelination: Critical for brain development. Pruning: Removal of unnecessary synaptic connections. Slide 20: Human Brain Anatomy Major parts include: ○ Frontal lobe ○ Parietal lobe ○ Occipital lobe ○ Cerebellum ○ Temporal lobe ○ Spinal cord Slide 21: Brain Mapping Methods Various techniques include EEG, fMRI, TMS, and PET scans. Slide 22: Major Brain Structures Hypothalamus: Regulates biological needs. Cerebral Cortex: Responsible for sophisticated processing. Slide 23: The Forebrain Thalamus: Relays sensory information. Hypothalamus: Maintains homeostasis. Slide 24: The Cerebral Cortex Composed of four lobes: ○ Frontal Lobe: Executive functions. ○ Parietal Lobe: Somatosensory processing. ○ Temporal Lobe: Auditory processing and memory. ○ Occipital Lobe: Visual processing. Slide 25: Hemispheric Specialization Left hemisphere: Verbal abilities. Right hemisphere: Nonverbal tasks. Slide 26: Split Brain Surgery Severing the corpus callosum affects communication between hemispheres. Slide 27: Neuroplasticity The brain's ability to reorganize itself through new connections. Slide 28: The Nervous System Composed of the central and peripheral nervous systems. Slide 29: Reflexes Automatic responses controlled by the spinal cord. Slide 30: Somatic & Autonomic Nervous Systems Somatic: Voluntary movements. Autonomic: Involuntary functions. Slide 31: Fight-or-Flight Response Adrenaline triggers physiological changes to prepare for emergencies. Slide 32: The Endocrine System Hormones act as chemical messengers in the bloodstream. Slide 33: Behavioural Genetics Studies the effects of heredity on behavior. Slide 34: Epigenetics Examines heritable changes in gene expression without altering DNA. Synaptic Transmission Video: Slide Summary Synaptic transmission is the process where neurons communicate via neurotransmitters across the synaptic cleft. 🧠 Synapse: Specialized junction for neuron communication. Slide Highlights 📏 Synaptic Cleft: A tiny gap (~40 nm) between neurons. - ⚡ Presynaptic Neuron: Sends signals through neurotransmitters. - 💥 Action Potential: Triggers neurotransmitter release from vesicles. - 🔗 Receptors: Bind neurotransmitters on the postsynaptic neuron. - 🔄 Reuptake: Process of recycling neurotransmitters back to the presynaptic neuron. - 🧪 Enzymatic Breakdown: Enzymes degrade neurotransmitters for re-synthesis. - - 🧠 Slide Key Insights - Communication Hub: The synapse serves as the primary site for neuron interaction, 📏 enabling complex signaling pathways essential for brain function. - Minuscule Space: The synaptic cleft's small width (less than 40 nm) emphasizes the ⚡ precision required for effective neurotransmission. - Role of Action Potentials: Action potentials are crucial; they initiate the release of 💥 neurotransmitters, illustrating how electrical signals translate into chemical communication. - Diverse Effects: Neurotransmitter binding can either excite or inhibit the postsynaptic 🔄 neuron, highlighting the dual role of these chemicals in neural processing. - Recycling Mechanism: Reuptake and recycling of neurotransmitters ensure efficiency and 🧪 sustainability in neuronal communication, preventing depletion. - Enzymatic Regulation: Enzymes play a vital role in modulating neurotransmitter levels, 🔗 impacting mood, cognition, and overall neural health. - Dynamic Interaction: The interplay between neurotransmitter release and receptor activation is fundamental to learning, memory, and behavioral responses. The Nervous System Video: Slide Summary The nervous system is essential for all bodily functions, processing sensory input, integration, and motor output, making it crucial for existence. 🧠 Nervous System Importance: It controls all bodily functions and interactions. Slide Highlights ⚡ Sensory Input: Detects stimuli like touch or temperature. - 🔄 Integration: Processes information and decides on responses. - 🖐️ Motor Output: Activates muscles and glands to react. - 🧬 Neurons vs. Glial Cells: Neurons transmit signals; glial cells support them. - 🔗 Neuron Types: Multipolar, bipolar, and unipolar neurons serve different functions. - - - 🕷️ Spider Example: Demonstrates the nervous system's response mechanism. 🧠 Slide Key Insights - Central Nervous System: Comprising the brain and spinal cord, it acts as the control center 🌐 for all nervous activities, crucial for decision-making and reflexes. - Peripheral Nervous System: Connects the central nervous system to the body, facilitating 🔄 two-way communication between the brain and limbs. - Sensory and Motor Neurons: Sensory neurons transmit data to the brain, while motor 🧬 neurons carry responses to muscles, enabling movement and action. - Glial Cells Functions: Glial cells, once seen as mere support, play vital roles in protecting ⚡ neurons and maintaining brain health, outnumbering neurons significantly. - Neuron Longevity: Neurons are among the longest-lived cells, highlighting the need for 📊 their protection and maintenance for overall nervous system health. - Neuron Classification: The structure and function of neurons vary, allowing for 🕷️ specialization that enhances the nervous system's complexity and efficiency. - Reflex Actions: The spider example illustrates how quickly the nervous system processes and reacts to stimuli, demonstrating its efficiency in ensuring survival. Epigenetics & Intergenerational Trauma Video: Slide Summary Rachel Yehuda, a pioneer in the field of epigenetics, explores how trauma and resilience can transcend generations. Her research indicates that traumatic experiences can biologically affect not only those who directly endure them but also their descendants. This work sheds light on the enduring impact of trauma and emphasizes the potential for healing through understanding and adaptation. 🔍 🔬 Slide Highlights - 1. Slide Epigenetics ExplainedSlide - : The study of how genes can be turned on or off by 👶 environmental factors. 2. Slide Intergenerational TraumaSlide - : Trauma can be passed down biologically, affecting 📚 the next generation. 3. Slide Holocaust ResearchSlide - : Yehuda studied children of Holocaust survivors, 🏙️ revealing similar stress responses to PTSD. 4. Slide 9/11 StudySlide - : Investigated pregnant women during the 9/11 attacks, finding 💡 biological impacts on their children. 5. Slide Power of KnowledgeSlide - : Understanding trauma's effects can empower healing 🌍 processes. 6. Slide Cultural AcknowledgmentSlide - : Spiritual traditions often create containers for acknowledging trauma. 7. Slide Resilience and AdaptationSlide - 🌱: Trauma can enhance adaptive capacities in individuals. 💡 🧬 Slide Key Insights - 1. Slide Epigenetics as a Tool for UnderstandingSlide - : Yehuda's research shows that epigenetics provides a framework to understand how experiences shape biological responses, offering a scientific basis for the emotional changes people undergo after traumatic events. This framework helps unpack complex emotional experiences. 🌿 2. Slide The Role of Environment in Gene ExpressionSlide - : The idea that our environment can influence how our genes express themselves highlights the dynamic interplay between biology and experience, suggesting that healing environments can foster resilience and adaptation. ⏳ 3. Slide Generational Effects of TraumaSlide - : Trauma can create biological vulnerabilities in offspring, which means understanding the experiences of previous generations is crucial for addressing mental health issues in current populations. 🤝 4. Slide The Importance of AcknowledgmentSlide - : Recognizing and naming trauma can be a vital first step toward healing, underscoring the need for supportive environments that allow individuals to process their experiences without stigma. 👪 5. Slide Coping Strategies in ParentingSlide - : Parents with histories of trauma can positively influence their children by sharing coping strategies, allowing for open discussions about mental health, which helps demystify their own struggles. ✝️ 6. Slide Cultural Practices and HealingSlide - : The Jewish tradition of memorializing trauma illustrates how cultural practices can provide frameworks for understanding and processing collective grief while allowing for individual healing. 🌈 7. Slide Holistic Approaches to Mental HealthSlide - : Integrating scientific insights into mental health practices can lead to more compassionate and effective treatment methods, emphasizing the need for a multidisciplinary approach to mental health care. PowerPoint Week #3 - Sensation and Perception Slide 2: Learning Objectives Understand the basics of sensation and perception. Discuss sensitivity of sensory organs. Explore adaptation to stimulating environments. Examine psychological influences on perceptual processing. Slide 3: Activity Participants to switch the location of their wallet or cell phone. Others to place a pencil or pen behind their ear for the lecture duration. Slide 4: Sensation and Perception Sensation: ○ Process of sensory organs receiving and representing environmental stimuli. ○ Bottom-up processing: Identifying what is seen. Perception: ○ Brain organizes and interprets sensory information. ○ Top-down processing: Recognizing based on prior knowledge. Slide 5: Sensation and Perception Overview Stimulus: ○ Sensory energy (light, sound, etc.) received by sensory organs (eyes, ears, nose). Sensation: ○ Initial detection of stimuli. Perception: ○ Interpretation of sensory information. Slide 6: Transduction Sense Receptors: ○ Specialized cells converting external stimuli into electrical signals. ○ Signals sent to the brain for interpretation. Slide 7: Psychophysics (Fechner)  Study of the relationship between physical stimuli and psychological experience. Absolute Threshold: Minimum stimulus detectable 50% of the time. Just Noticeable Difference (JND): Smallest change in stimulus intensity detectable. Weber’s Law: Larger changes in stimulus intensity are needed for stronger stimuli to be noticed. Slide 8: Examples of Absolute Thresholds Definition of absolute threshold as the lowest detectable stimulus level. Slide 9: Signal Detection Theory Absolute thresholds apply under ideal conditions. Signal-to-noise ratio: Difficulty in detecting signals as background noise increases. Other factors influencing detection accuracy. Slide 10: Perceiver's Response Responses categorized as "Hit," "Miss," "False Alarm," or "Correct Rejection." Slide 11: Difference Threshold / Just Noticeable Difference  JND defined as the smallest detectable change in stimulus intensity. Example: Weight-lifting scenario illustrating Weber’s Law. Slide 12: JND & Marketing Application of JND in marketing strategies. Negative changes (e.g., price increases) are less noticeable than positive changes (e.g., new packaging). Slide 13: Cadbury's Example Cadbury made 23 small changes to product labels over 100 years. Slide 14: Tropicana Example Tropicana's sales dropped 20% after a packaging change. Slide 15: Sensory Adaptation Adjustment in sensory capacity after prolonged exposure to unchanging stimuli. Decline in sensitivity due to receptor fatigue. Examples: Ignoring the feel of clothes or background noise. Slide 17: Perception Constructive process of organizing stimuli into meaningful experiences. Influenced by previous experiences, knowledge, motivations, and expectations. Slide 18: Bottom-up vs. Top-down Processing Bottom-up Processing: Data-driven, starts with sensory data. Top-down Processing: Driven by prior knowledge and expectations. Slide 27: Gestalt Laws of Organization Principles from early 1900s German psychologists on how we organize information into wholes. Slide 28: Perceptual Constancies in Vision Objects perceived as consistent despite changes in appearance. Slide 29: Perception of Motion Brain processes speed and direction of motion. Phi Phenomenon: Illusion of movement from successive images. Slide 30: Perceptual Blindness Inattentional Blindness: Failure to notice stimuli when focused elsewhere. Change Blindness: Failure to detect changes in the environment. Slide 31: Cross-Modal Processing Integration of sensory information across modalities. Examples: McGurk effect and Rubber Hand Illusion. Slide 33: Vision and the Eye Vision begins with light, a form of electromagnetic radiation. Visual spectrum corresponds to wavelengths humans can perceive. Slide 35: Structure of the Eye Cornea: Bends light to focus images. Lens: Adjusts curvature for fine-tuning images. Slide 37: Retina Neural tissue that processes images and sends information to the brain. Contains rods (dim light) and cones (daylight and color vision). Slide 39: Color Perception Color is determined by wavelengths reflected or absorbed by objects. Slide 40: Components of Color Brightness: Amount of light reflected. Hue: Color names related to light wavelength. Saturation: Purity of color. Slide 41: Color Blindness  Normal vision distinguishes ~7 million colors. Types of color blindness: Red-Green and Blue-Yellow. Slide 42: Trichromatic Theory of Color Vision Three types of cones in the retina respond to specific wavelengths. Color perception is influenced by the activation of these cones. Slide 44: Opponent-Process Theory of Color Vision Receptor cells linked in pairs, working oppositely (e.g., blue-yellow). Color perception based on the balance of PowerPoint Week #4 - States of Consciousness Sleep, Dreams, and Drugs Page 2: Learning Objectives Understand different states of consciousness. Explore what happens during sleep and why it is necessary. Identify major sleep disorders. Discuss the meaning and function of dreams. Define psychoactive drugs and their primary effects. Page 3: Consciousness Definition: Awareness of sensations, thoughts, and feelings at any moment. ○ Subjective understanding of internal and external worlds. ○ Constantly changing, likened to a "stream of consciousness" (James). ○ Example: Consciousness encompasses all experiences, from pain to love. Page 4: The Continuum of Consciousness Ranges from coma to extreme excitement. States include: ○ Coma ○ Somnolent ○ Alert  ○ Vigilant ○ Relaxed ○ Attentive ○ Hyperaroused ○ Distractible ○ Stuporous ○ Hypersomnolent Page 5: Consciousness & Brain Activity Brain activity measured by EEG. Different brain wave patterns correspond to various states of consciousness. EEG can help determine brain injuries. Page 6: Sleep Definition: A state of rest essential for various bodily functions. Page 8: Circadian Rhythms (CR) 24-hour cycles regulating sleep/wake, body temperature, hormone production, and blood pressure. Controlled by the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the brain. Influenced by light and darkness. Page 10: Ignoring Circadian Rhythms Consequences of disruption: ○ Poor sleep quality. ○ Fatigue and decreased productivity. ○ Negative impacts on mental health and relationships. ○ Higher incidence of chronic diseases. Page 11: Tips for Healthy Sleep/Wake Cycle Build a consistent sleep schedule. Get sunlight exposure. Avoid electronics before bed. Exercise regularly. Limit caffeine intake. Keep naps short. Page 12: Stages of Sleep Hypnagogic State: Pre-sleep consciousness with vivid images. Non-REM Sleep Stages: ○ Stage N1: Transition stage with low-voltage brain waves. ○ Stage N2: Regular wave patterns with sleep spindles. ○ Stage N3: Slower brain waves with higher peaks. ○ Stage N4: Deepest sleep, least responsive to stimuli. Page 14: Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Accounts for 20% of sleep time. Characterized by body paralysis, increased heart rate, and most dreaming. Vital for learning and memory consolidation. Page 15: Why Do We Need Sleep? Evolutionary: Energy conservation and protection from predators. Restoration: Repairs brain and body. Memory: Crucial for memory consolidation. Development: Essential for brain development in children. Page 19: Sleep Disorders Insomnia: Difficulty falling/staying asleep. Sleep Apnea: Breathing difficulties during sleep. Night Terrors: Sudden awakenings with extreme fear. Narcolepsy: Uncontrollable sleep episodes. Sleepwalking/Sleeptalking: Walking or talking while asleep. Sleep Paralysis: Inability to move or speak during sleep. Page 25: Dreams Wish Fulfillment Theory (Freud): Dreams represent unconscious wishes. Dreams-for-Survival Theory: Dreams help process critical information for survival. Activation-Synthesis Theory: Dreams result from random brain activity during REM. Page 29: Meditation A technique for altering consciousness through focused attention. Benefits include relaxation and improved health. Page 32: Psychoactive Drugs Substances that alter emotions, perceptions, and behavior. Can lead to altered states of consciousness. Page 36: Defining Addiction Addiction is often confused with dependence and substance misuse. Defined by the "4 Cs": Craving, Loss of control, Compulsion, and Use despite consequences. Page 40: How Psychoactive Drugs Work Alter neurotransmitter activity, particularly dopamine. Influence the brain's reward pathways. Page 42: Stimulants Increase CNS activity (e.g., caffeine, cocaine). Effects range from excitement to paranoia. Page 44: Depressants Decrease CNS activity (e.g., alcohol, benzodiazepines). Can lead to lethargy and impaired functioning. Page 46: Opioids Natural and synthetic substances for pain relief (e.g., heroin, oxycodone). High risk of addiction and overdose. Page 48: Hallucinogens Alter sensory perceptions (e.g., LSD, ecstasy). Can lead to increased awareness and emotional experiences. Page 49: Summary Table of Risks Varying degrees of risk associated with different drugs. Importance of understanding societal and legal