Psych and Soc - Flashcards PDF

 1.1 A Brief History of Neuropsychology 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 1 - BIOLOGY & BEHAVIOUR Franz Gall: (1758 – 1828). Phrenology Doctrine of Phrenology: The idea was that if a particular trait was well-...

 1.1 A Brief History of Neuropsychology 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 1 - BIOLOGY & BEHAVIOUR Franz Gall: (1758 – 1828). Phrenology Doctrine of Phrenology: The idea was that if a particular trait was well- developed, then the part of the brain responsible for that trait would Pierre Flourens: (1794 – 1867). expand. Functions of major sections of the brain. Used extirpation to study parts of brain. (Was found to be false, it did generate serious research on brain functions) William James: (1842 – 1910). Functionalism: How mental processes Father of American Psychology: William James help individuals adapt to their environment. Functionalism: A system of though in psychology that studied how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments. John Dewey: (1859 – 1952). Functionalism Broca's Area: Specific part in the left side of the brain named after him after he found that a man who’d been unable to talk was unable to do Paul Broca: (1824 – 1880). Studied so because of a lesion the area. people with legions in specific regions of brain. Broca’s Area: Speech Existence of Synapses: Discovered by Sir Charles Sherrington. production. However, he thought that synaptic transmission was an electrical Hermann von Helmholtz: (1821 – 1894). process, but we now know that it is primarily a chemical process. Speed of impulse. Made psychology a science. "Mind Pioneers Unveiled Brains' Evolution." Explanation: Mind: Represents the focus on studying the brain's functions related to Sir Charles Sherrington: (1857 – 1952). the mind. Synapses Pioneers: Refers to the early researchers and scientists who contributed to the field. Sigmund Freud: (1856 – 1939). Unveiled: Signifies the revelation of insights about brain function. Psychoanalytic perspective. Brains' Evolution: Highlights the progression and development of knowledge about the brain over time.  1.2 Organization of the Human Nervous System 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 1 - BIOLOGY & BEHAVIOUR Neurons: Sensory: Afferent, receptors > spinal cord Interneurons: Between other neurons. Mainly CNS. Motor: Efferent, CNS > muscles & glands Reflex Arcs: Interneurons in spinal cord relay info to the source of stimuli while simultaneously routing it to the brain. Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Nervous tissue and fibers outside CNS Somatic: Voluntary Autonomic: Sympathetic = F/F, parasympathetic = R/D.  1.3 Organization of the Brain 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 1 - BIOLOGY & BEHAVIOUR Hindbrain: Cerebellum, medulla oblongata, Anatomical Subdivisions of the reticular formation. Human Brain: Midbrain: Inferior and superior colliculi. There are 3 main subdivisions: 1. Forebrain Forebrain: Thalamus, hypothalamus, basal 2. Midbrain ganglia, limbic system, cerebral cortex. 3. Hindbrain Methods of Study: Electroencephalography Midbrain and hindbrain comprise (EEG). Regional cerebral blood flow. the brainstem and is associated with functions of basic survival Forebrain developed later and is associated with more complex functioning "Big Brains In Humans Have Many Grooves." Each initial letter corresponds to a major part of the brain: Big - Brainstem (Includes pons and medulla) Brains - Basal Ganglia (Motor control) The Meninges: Thick sheath of connective In - Internal Capsule (White matter tract) Humans - Hypothalamus (Homeostasis) tissue with the following functions: Have - Hippocampus (Memory) Help protect the brain Many - Meninges (Protective layers) keep it anchored within the skull Grooves - Gyri (Raised folds of the brain's surface) Resorb cerebrospinal fluid  1.4 Parts of the Forebrain 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 1 - BIOLOGY & BEHAVIOUR Thalamus: Relay station for sensory information. Hypothalamus: Homeostasis & the 4 F’s. Integrates with endocrine system. Hypothalamus > hypophyseal portal > anterior pituitary Basal Ganglia: Smooths movements and helps postural stability. Limbic System: Septal Nuclei: Pleasure and addiction. Amygdala: Fear and aggression. Hippocampus: Emotion and memory. Cerebral Cortex: Four lobes 1. Frontal: Executive function, impulse control, speech, motor. 2. Parietal: Touch, pressure, temp, pain, spatial processing. 3. Occipital: Visual 4. Temporal: Sound, speech perception, memory, emotion. Cerebral Hemispheres: Left is analytic, language, logic, math. Usually dominant Right is intuition, creativity, spatial processing.  1.5 Influences on Behavior 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 1 - BIOLOGY & BEHAVIOUR Neurotransmitters: Released by neurons to carry a signal. Acetylcholine: Used by somatic nervous system to move muscles. Also used by the parasympathetic and CNS. Dopamine: Maintains smooth movements and steady posture. Endorphins & Natural pain killers. Enkephalins: Epinephrine & Maintain wakefulness and mediate F/F responses. Norepinephrine: Epinephrine tends to act as a hormone, norepinephrine a neurotransmitter. g-aminobutyric Inhibitory neurotransmitters. Act as brain Acid (GABA): “stabilizers”. Glycine serves a similar function. Glutamate: Acts as an excitatory neurotransmitter. Serotonin: Modulates mood, sleep, eating, and dreaming. The endocrine system is tied to the nervous system through the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary, and a few other hormones: Cortisol: Stress hormone released by the adrenal cortex. Testosterone & Mediate libido. Testosterone also ­aggressive Estrogen: behavior. Both are produced in gonads, released by adrenal cortex. nature heredity, or the influence of inherited characteristics on behavior Epinephrine & Released by adrenal medulla and cause physiological nurture Norepinephrine: changes associated with the sympathetic nervous system. influence of environment and physical surroundings on behavior  1.6 Development 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 1 - BIOLOGY & BEHAVIOUR The nervous system develops through neurulation, in which the notochord stimulates overlying ectoderm to fold over, creating a neural tube topped with neural crest cells Neural Tube: Becomes the CNS Neural Crest Cells: Spread out throughout the body, differentiating into many different tissues. Primitive Reflexes: Exist in infants and should disappear with age. Rooting Reflex: Turns head toward stimulus. Moro Reflex: Extends arms, response to falling sensation. Babinski Reflex: Big toe is extended and other toes fan out in response to brushing on sole of foot. Grasping Reflex: Grabs anything put into hands. fetal nutrition Developmental Milestones Gross and fine motor abilities progress head to toe and core to periphery Social skills shift from parent-oriented to other-oriented Language skills become increasingly complex neurulation: development of the embryonic nervous system in which the notochord stimulates overlying ectoderm to fold over, creating a neural tube topped with neural crest cells  2.1 Sensation vs Perception 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 2 - SENSATION AND PERCEPTION Sensory Receptors: Sensory nerves that respond to stimuli. Sensory Ganglia: Collection of cell bodies outside the CNS. Projection Areas: Areas in the brain that analyze sensory input. Absolute Threshold: The min of stimulus energy that will activate a sensory system. Threshold of The minimum stimulus energy that will create a Conscious Perception: signal large enough in size and long enough in duration to be brought into awareness. Difference Threshold: The min difference in magnitude between two stimuli before one can perceive this difference. Weber’s Law: Just Noticeable Difference (JND) for a stimulus is proportional to the magnitude of the stimulus. Signal Detection Refers to the effects of nonsensory factors, such Theory: as experiences, motives, and expectations on perception of stimuli. Accounts for response bias. Adaptation: Refers to a or ­ in sensitivity to a stimulus.  2.2 Vision 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 2 - SENSATION AND PERCEPTION Cornea: Gathers and filters incoming light. Iris: Controls size of pupil. Colored part of eye. Divides front of the eye into the anterior & posterior chamber. It contains 2 muscles, the dilator and constrictor pupillae. Lens: Refracts incoming light to focus it on the retina. Aqueous Produced by the ciliary body. Nourishes the eye and gives Humor: the eye its shape. Drains through the canal of Schlemm. Retina: Rods: Detect light / dark. Contain rhodopsin. Cones: Color. Short / medium / long. Cones are in the fovea, which is part of the macula. Pathway from retina: Rods/Cones bipolar cells ganglion cells optic nerve Retinal Disparity: Space between eyes; allows for binocular vision and depth. Horizontal & Integrates signals from ganglion cells and performs edge- Amacrine Cells: sharpening. Support: Vitreous on inside. Sclera and choroid on outside. Processing: Parallel Processing: Color, form, and motion at same time. Magnocellular Cells: Motion. High temporal resolution. Parvocellular Cells: Shape. High spatial resolution.  2.3 Hearing and Vestibular Sense 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 2 - SENSATION AND PERCEPTION Outer Ear: Pinna (auricle), external auditory canal, tympanic membrane. Middle Ear: Connected to nasal cavity by Eustachian tube. Ossicles: Acronym MIS and HAS. Malleus: Hammer Incus: Anvil Stapes: Stirrup. Footplate of stapes rests in the oval window of cochlea. Inner Ear: Bony Labyrinth: Filled with perilymph. Membranous Labyrinth: Filled with endolymph. Membranous labyrinth consists of cochlea (sound), utricle & saccule (linear acceleration) and semicircular canals (rotational acceleration & balance). Projection Areas: Superior Olive: Localizes sound. Located in brain stem. Inferior Colliculus: Startle reflex. Also used by both eyes help transmit and amplify the vibrations and ears in the vestibulo-ocular reflex which keeps the from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear eyes fixed on a single point as the head rotates. The inner ear sits within a bony labyrinth and contains - cochlea - vestibule - semicircular canal  2.4 Other Senses 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 2 - SENSATION AND PERCEPTION Smell: The detection of volatile or aerosolized chemicals by the olfactory chemoreceptors (olfactory nerves) in the olfactory epithelium. Smell info bypasses the thalamus. Pheromones: Chemicals given off by animals that have an effect on social foraging, and sexual behavior. Taste: The detection of dissolved compounds by taste buds in papillae. Sweet/sour/salty/bitter/umamai. Somatosensation: Refers to the four touch modalities: Pressure, vibration, pain, temperature. Two-Point Threshold: Minimum distance necessary between 2 points of stimulation on the skin such that the points will be felt as two distinct stimuli. Physiological Zero: The normal temp of skin to which objects are compared to. Nociceptors: Pain reception. Gate theory of pain. JND for pain. Kinesthetic Sense: Proprioception  2.5 Object Recognition 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 2 - SENSATION AND PERCEPTION Top-Down The recognition of an object by memories and expectations. Processing: Little attention to detail. Uses background knowledge. Bottom-Up Details ® whole. Recognition of objects by feature Processing: detection. Not influenced by background knowledge. Gestalt Proximity, similarity, continuity, closure. All are governed by Principles: the Law of Prägnanz. top-down (conceptually driven processing) gestalt principles refers to recognition of objects by memories and expectations with little attention to detail bottom-up (data driven processing) refers to recognition of objects by parallel processing and feature detection two major theories of psychological processing  3.1 Learning 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 3 - LEARNING AND MEMORY Habituation: Becoming used to a stimulus. Dishabituation: When a 2nd stimulus intervenes causing a resensitization of the original stimulus. Associative Learning: Pairing together stimuli / responses or behaviors / consequences. Operant Conditioning: Behavior is changed through the use of consequences. Reinforcement: Increases likelihood of behavior. Punishment: Decreases likelihood of behavior. Schedule: The schedule of reinforcement can be based on an amount of time or a ratio of behavior / reward, and can be either fixed or variable. Positive Response: Adding something. Negative Response: Removing something. Extinction: When a previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced, it goes extinct. Shaping: In operant conditioning, shaping is a when behavior that is closer and closer to the target behavior is reinforced. Classical Conditioning: With repetition, a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that produces a conditioned response. Observational Learning The acquisition of behavior by watching others. or Modeling:  3.2 Memory 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 3 - LEARNING AND MEMORY Encoding: The process of putting new info into memory. It can be automatic or effortful. Semantic encoding is stronger than both acoustic and visual encoding. Sensory & Short Term Transient and based on neurotransmitter activity. Memory: Working Memory: Requires STM, attention, and executive function to manipulate information. Long Term Memory: Requires elaborate rehearsal and is the result of increased neuronal connectivity. Explicit (declarative) Memory: Accounts for memories that we must consciously recall with effort and focus. Implicit (nondeclaritive) Memory: Accounts for acquired skills and conditioned responses to circumstances and stimuli. Semantic Networks: Stores facts. Concepts are linked together based on similar meaning. Certain triggers will activate associated memories. Retrieval: Recognition of info is stronger than recall. Retrieval is often based on priming interconnected nodes of the semantic network. Diseases: Alzheimers: Degenerative brain disorder linked to a loss of acetylcholine in neurons that link to hippocampus. Causes dementia and memory loss. Korsakoff’s Syndrome: Memory loss caused by thiamine deficiency in the brain. Causes retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia. Another symptom is confabulation, Mnemonic for Semantic Mnemonic for Working the fabrication of vivid but fake memories. Networks: "FACTS" Memory: "WAWE" Agnosia: Loss of ability to recognize objects, people, or sounds. Usually caused by physical damage to brain. F: Facts stored. W: Working memory. A: Associated memories. Interference: Retroactive Interference: New memories make you forget C: Concepts linked. A: Attention needed. old memories. T: Triggers activate. W: Requires STM. Proactive Interference: Old memories interfere with learning S: Similar meaning. E: Executive function. new memories.  3.3 Neurobiology of Learning and Memory 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 3 - LEARNING AND MEMORY Neuroplasticity: Neural Circuits: Memory formation and learning involve intricate Neuroplasticity, also known as brain plasticity or neural plasticity, networks of interconnected neurons known as neural circuits. These refers to the brain's ability to reorganize and adapt by forming circuits facilitate the storage, retrieval, and consolidation of new neural connections throughout life. It involves the ability of memories. neurons to modify their structure and function in response to Synaptic Pruning: This is the process by which the brain eliminates learning, experience, and environmental changes. Neuroplasticity weaker or unused synaptic connections, allowing for more efficient underlies learning and memory processes, allowing the brain to neural communication and information processing. adapt to new information, recover from injuries, and compensate for damage. Consolidation: After initial learning, memories go through a process called consolidation, during which they become more stable and Two Types of Brain Plasticity: resistant to interference. This process involves the strengthening of Structural Plasticity: This refers to the physical changes in the neural connections. brain's neural pathways and synapses. It involves the growth of new dendritic branches, the formation of new synapses, and Hippocampus: The hippocampus is a brain region crucial for the even the elimination of existing synapses in response to formation of new memories and spatial navigation. It's often learning experiences. Structural plasticity allows the brain to implicated in episodic and declarative memory. physically rewire itself based on learning and memory Amygdala: The amygdala plays a key role in processing emotions, demands. particularly fear-related responses. It's also involved in the Functional Plasticity: This type of plasticity involves changes emotional aspects of memory consolidation. in the function of existing neural pathways. It often occurs in Encoding, Storage, Retrieval: These are the three main stages of response to damage or injury to specific brain regions. Other memory processing. Encoding involves the initial acquisition of areas of the brain may take over the functions of the information, storage involves maintaining the information over time, damaged regions, allowing for compensation and recovery. and retrieval involves bringing the stored information back into Functional plasticity is particularly important in cases of brain conscious awareness. injury or stroke. Neurotransmitters and Memory: Various neurotransmitters, such Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): as glutamate, acetylcholine, and dopamine, play critical roles in Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a phenomenon in which the facilitating communication between neurons and are essential for strength of synaptic connections between neurons is increased memory processes. after repeated and persistent stimulation. It is considered one of the cellular mechanisms underlying learning and memory. During LTP, there is an enhancement in the ability of one neuron to influence the firing of another neuron, leading to improved signal transmission and communication between neurons. LTP is often studied in the context of hippocampal synapses and is thought to be a crucial process for the formation and storage of memories.  4.1 Cognition 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 4 - COGNITION, CONSCIOUSNESS, AND LANGUAGE Information The brain encodes, stores, and retrieves info much like a Processing Model: computer. Piaget’s Stages: Involve schemas and assimilation vs. accommodation. Sensorimotor: 0 2 yrs. Child manipulates the environment to meet physical needs through circular reactions. Object permanence develops at the end of this stage. Preoperational: 2 7 yrs. Pretend play, symbolic thinking so they learn to talk, egocentrism & centration. Concrete Operational: 7 11 yrs. Understands the feelings of others. Conservation develops. Math. Formal Operational: 11 years and older. Abstract thought and problem solving. Moral reasoning. Jean Piaget was one of the most influential figures in developmental psychology piaget insisted that there are qualitative differences between the way that children and adults think  4.2 Problem Solving 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 4 - COGNITION, CONSCIOUSNESS, AND LANGUAGE Types: Trial-and-Error Algorithms Deductive Reasoning: Form conclusions from rules. Inductive Reasoning: Form conclusions from evidence. Mental Set: A pattern of approach for a given problem. Functional The tendency to use objects only in the way they are Fixedness: normally utilized. Creates barriers to problem-solving. Heuristics: “Rules of thumb” Availability Heuristic: When we make our decisions based on how easily similar instances can be imagined. Representativeness The tendency to make decisions about actions / events Heuristic: based on our standard representations of the events. Confirmation Bias: The tendency to focus on information that fits an individual’s beliefs, while rejecting information that goes against those beliefs. Gardner’s Theory of 7 areas of intelligence: Linguistic, logical- Multiple mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily- Intelligences: kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal.  4.3 Consciousness 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 4 - COGNITION, CONSCIOUSNESS, AND LANGUAGE Alertness: State of being awake and thinking. EEG shows BETA waves when alert or concentrating, ALPHA waves when awake but tired, eyes closed. BETA: freq amp; ALPHA: Synchronous Sleep: More info on right Hypnosis: Individuals appear to be in normal control of their faculties but are in a highly suggestible state. Used for pain control, psychological therapy, memory enhancement. Meditation: Quieting of the mind. Used for relief of anxiety. Mnemonic for consciousness: "AWARE" Alertness Waves (Beta/Alpha) Awake Relaxation Eyes  4.4 Consciousness-Altering Drugs 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 4 - COGNITION, CONSCIOUSNESS, AND LANGUAGE Depressants: Alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines. They ­ GABA. Stimulants: Amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy. ­ Dopamine, ­norepinephrine, serotonin at synaptic cleft. Opiates & Opioids: Heroin, morphine, opium, oxycodone & hydrocodone. Can cause death by respiratory depression. Hallucinogens: LSD, peyote, mescaline, ketamine. Mesolimbic Mediates drug addiction. Includes nucleus accumbens, Pathway: medial forebrain bundle, and ventral tegmental area. Dopamine is the main neurotransmitter. marijuana has depressant, stimulant, and hallucinogenic effects active ingredient = tetrahydrocannabinol  4.5 Attention 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 4 - COGNITION, CONSCIOUSNESS, AND LANGUAGE Selective Attention: Allows one to pay attention to particular stimulus while determining if additional stimuli in the background require attention. Divided Attention: Uses automatic processing to pay attention to multiple activities at one time. Remember "BAT-DAS" to recall the concepts of Selective Attention and Divided Attention more easily. Background Attention Test: - Background awareness while assessing stimuli. Dual Activity Spotlight: - Divided attention using Automatic processing for REMEMBER: multiple activities. Selective Attention for Single stimulus. Divided Attention for Different tasks.  4.6 Language 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 4 - COGNITION, CONSCIOUSNESS, AND LANGUAGE Phonology: The actual sound of speech. Language consists of - morphology Morphology: The building blocks of words. refers to the building blocks of words, such as rules for pluralization (–s in Semantics: The meaning of words. English), past tense (–ed ), and so forth Syntax: Rules dictating word order. Pragmatics: Changes in language delivery depending on context. Theories of Nativist (biological) Theory: Language acquisition is Language innate. Development: Learning (behaviorist) Theory: Language acquisition is controlled by operant conditioning and reinforcement by parents and caregivers. Social Interactionist Theory: Language acquisition is caused by a motivation to communicate and interact with others. Whorfian Linguistic Relativity. The lens by which we view and Hypothesis: interpret the world is created by language. Broca’s Area: Produces speech Wernicke’s Area: Language comprehension Arcuate Fasciculus: Connects Broca’s Area and Wernicke’s Area. Aphasia: Language deficit Broca’s Aphasia: Difficult to generate speech. Wernicke’s Aphasia: Lack of comprehension. Conduction Aphasia: Can’t repeat words.  5.1 Motivation 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 5 - MOTIVATION, EMOTION AND STRESS Motivation: The purpose, or driving force, behind our actions Can be extrinsic or intrinsic. Instincts: Innate, fixed patterns of behavior in response to stimuli. Instinct Theory: People perform certain behaviors because of their evolutionarily programmed instincts. Arousal: The state of being awake and reactive to stimuli. Optimal Arousal Optimal performance requires optimal arousal. Arousal Theory: levels that are too ­or too will impede performance Drives: Internal states of tension that beget particular behaviors focused on goals. Primary drives: related to biological processes. Secondary drives: stem from learning. Drive Reduction Motivation arises from the desire to eliminate drives, Theory: which create uncomfortable internal states. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Physiological, safety and security, love and belonging, Needs: self-esteem, and self-actualization. Higher needs only produce drives once lower needs are met. Opponent-Process Explains motivation for drug use: as drug use increases, Theory: the body counteracts its effects, leading to tolerance and uncomfortable withdrawal symptoms. Self-Actualization: Full realization of one’s talents and potential. House Money Effect: After a prior gain, people become more open to assuming risk since the new money is not treated as one's own. Self-Determination Emphasizes 3 universal needs: autonomy, competence, Theory: and relatedness. Gambler’s Fallacy: If something happens more frequently than normal, it will happen less frequently in the future, or vice versa. Incentive Theory: Explains motivation as the desire to pursue rewards and Prisoner’s Dilemma: Two people act out of their own self-interest, but if avoid punishments. they had cooperated, the result would have been even better. Expectancy-Value The amount of motivation for a task is based on the Theory: expectation of success and the value of that success.  5.2 Emotion 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 5 - MOTIVATION, EMOTION AND STRESS Emotion: A state of mind, or feeling, that is subjectively experienced based on circumstances, mood, and relationships Three Components of Cognitive: Subjective Emotion: Physiological: Changes in autonomic nervous system Behavioral: Facial expressions and body language 7 Universal Emotions: Happiness, sadness, contempt, surprise, fear, disgust and anger James-Lange Theory: Behavioral and physiological actions lead to emotions. Ex: Power posing. Cannon-Bard Theory: Emotional and physiological responses to a stimulus occur simultaneously. They arise from separate and independent areas of the brain. Schacter-Singer Theory: Two-factor theory of emotion. Physiological arousal and interpretation of context or “cognitive label” limbic system lead to emotion. Limbic System: Concerned with instincts and mood. See appendix for full diagram.  5.3 Stress 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 5 - MOTIVATION, EMOTION AND STRESS Stress: The physiological and cognitive response to challenges or life changes. Stress Appraisal: Primary Appraisal: Classifying a potential stressor as irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful. Secondary Appraisal: Evaluating if the organism can cope with the stress. Stressors: Anything that leads to a stress response. Can lead to distress or eustress. General Adaptation Specific stressors do not have specific responses, Syndrome: they all generate the same general physical stress response. 3 stages of stress: Alarm, resistance, exhaustion. These involve both the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system; release of ACTH leads to ­cortisol. Eustress Distress a form of stress having the type of stress we a beneficial effect on are referring too when health, motivation, we say stress. It is the performance, and well- form of stress with being negative implications + -  6.1 Self Concept 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 6 - IDENTITY AND PERSONALITY Self-Concept: The sum of ways we describe ourselves. Identities: Individual components of our self-concept related to the group to which we belong. Self-Esteem: The closer our actual self is to our ideal self and our ought self (who others want us to be), the ­ our self-esteem. Self-Efficacy: The degree to which we see ourselves as being capable at a given skill or situation. Learned Helplessness: A state of hopelessness that results from being unable to avoid repeated negative stimuli. Locus of Control: Internal: We control our own success/failure External: Outside factors have more control Self-Concept Summary: Self-Concept: Sum of self-descriptions. Identities: Group-related aspects. Self-Esteem: Actual vs. ideal/ought self. Self-Efficacy: Confidence in skills. Learned Helplessness: Hopelessness from negativity. Locus of Control: Internal vs. external influence.  6.2 Formation of Identity 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 6 - IDENTITY AND PERSONALITY Freud: Psychosexual stages of 0 1 Oral personality development 1 3 Anal based on tensions caused 3 6 Phallic by the libido. Failure at 6 puberty Latent any stage leads to fixation Puberty Adult Genital which causes personality disorder. Erikson: Stages stem from conflicts throughout life. 0 1 1. Trust vs. Mistrust 1 3 2. Autonomy vs. Shame 3 6 3. Initiative vs. Guilt 6 12 4. Industry vs. Inferiority 12 20 5. Identity vs. Role Confusion 20 40 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation 40 65 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation 65 death 8. Integrity vs. Despair Kohlberg: Stages based on moral dilemmas. 6 stages in 3 phases. Example: Mr. Heinz dilemma. Vygotsky: Zone of Proximal Development: The skills that a child has not yet mastered and require a more knowledgeable other to accomplish. Imitation & Common ways children learn from others. Role-Taking  6.3 Personality 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 6 - IDENTITY AND PERSONALITY Psychoanalytic Personality results from unconscious urges & desires. Perspective: Freud, Jung, Adler, and Horney. Freud’s Theory: Id: Base urges of survival and reproduction. Superego: The idealist and perfectionist. Ego: Mediator between the two and the conscious mind. The ego uses defense mechanisms to stress. All three operate, at least in part, in the unconscious. Jung: Collective unconscious links all humans together. Personality is influenced by archetypes. Adler & Horney: Unconscious is motivated by social urges. Humanistic Emphasizes the internal feelings of healthy individuals as Perspective: they strive for happiness and self-realization. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Rogers’s unconditional positive regard flow from the humanistic view of personality. Type & Trait Personality can be described by identifiable traits that Theory: carry characteristic behaviors. Type Theories: Ancient Greek humors, Sheldon’s somatotypes, divisions into Type A and Type B, and Myers-Briggs Type Inventory. Social Individuals react with their environment in a cycle called Trait Theories: PEN: Psychoticism (nonconformity), extraversion Cognitive reciprocal determinism. People mold their environments (sociable), neuroticism (arousal in stressful situations). Perspective: according to their personality, and those environments in Big Five: Openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, turn shape their thoughts, feelings and behaviors. agreeableness, and neuroticism. OCEAN mnemonic. 3 Basic Traits: Cardinal traits (traits around which Behaviorist Our personality develops as a result of operant person organizes their life), central traits (major Perspective: conditioning. E.g. it is reward and punishment based. characteristics of personality), secondary traits (more personal characteristics and limited in occurrence). Biological Behavior can be explained as a result of genetic Perspective: expression.  7.1 Understanding Psychological Disorders 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 7 - PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS Behaviorist Approach: Classical and operant conditioning shapes the disorder. Biomedical Approach: Takes into account only physical and medical causes. Biopsychosocial Considers relative contributions of biological, Approach: psychological, and social components. Psychodynamic Related to Freud’s psychoanalysis. Approach: DSM-5: The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition. Categorizes mental disorders based on symptoms.  7.2 Types of Psychological Disorders 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 7 - PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS Schizophrenia: Prototypical disorder with psychosis. Somatic Symptom & Involve significant bodily symptoms. Positive Symptoms: Add something to behavior, cognition or Related Disorders: Somatic Symptom Disorder: “Somatoform disorder”. A somatic affect. Such as delusions or hallucinations. symptom causes disproportionate concern. Negative Symptoms: The loss of something. Such as Illness Anxiety Disorder: Preoccupation with thoughts about disturbances of affect and avolition. having or coming down with illness. Conversion Disorder: Associated with prior trauma, involves Depressive Include major depressive disorder and seasonal affective unexplained symptoms resulting in loss of body function. Disorders: disorder. Hypochondriasis: “Illness Anxiety Disorder”. One strongly Major Dep Disorder: At least 1 major depressive episode. believes he or she has a serious illness despite few or no Persistent Dep Disorder: Dysthymia for at least 2 years that doesn’t meet criteria for Major Depressive Disorder. symptoms. Seasonal Affective Disorder: Depression occurring in winter. Personality Patterns of inflexible, maladaptive behavior that cause distress Disorders: or impaired function. Bipolar and Related Manic or hypomanic episodes. Disorders: Bipolar I: At least one manic episode. Cluster A: “weird” - Paranoid, schizotypal, schizoid. Bipolar II: At least one hypomanic episode & at least one Cluster B: “wild” - antisocial, borderline, histrionic, narcissistic. major Cluster C: “worried” – avoidant, dependent, OC. depressive episode. Cyclothymic Disorder: Hypomanic episodes with dysthymia. Anxiety Disorders: Generalized anxiety disorder, phobias, social anxiety disorder, agoraphobia, and panic disorder. Depression can often occur with anxiety, as can related conditions such as PTSD or OCD Obsessive- Obsessions: Persistent, intrusive thoughts & impulses. Compulsive Disorder: Compulsions: Repetitive tasks that relieve tension but cause impairment in a person’s life. Body Dysmorphic Unrealistic negative evaluation of one’s appearance. Disorder: PTSD: Intrusive symptoms such as flashbacks, nightmares. Avoidance symptoms, negative cognitive symptoms & arousal symptoms. Dissociative Dissociative Amnesia: Can’t recall past experiences. Disorders: Dissociative Fugue: Assumption of a new identity. Dissociative Identity Disorder: Multiple personalities. Depersonalization / Derealization Disorder: Feeling detached from the mind and body, or environment.  7.3 Biological Basis of Nervous System Disorder 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 7 - PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS Schizophrenia: Genetic factors, birth trauma, marijuana use, family history. Depression: ­ glucocorticoids, norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine. Bipolar norepinephrine and serotonin. Also heritable. Disorders: Alzheimer’s: Genetic factors, brain atrophy, acetylcholine, senile plaques of b-amyloid. Parkinson’s: Bradykinesia, resting tremor, pill-rolling tremor, masklike facies, cogwheel rigidity, and a shuffling gait. dopamine  8.1 Group Psychology 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 8 - SOCIAL PROCESSESS, ATTITUDE AND BEHAVIOR Social Facilitation: Describes the tendency of people to perform at a different level when others are around. Deindividuation: A loss of self-awareness in large groups. Max Weber Bystander Effect: When in a group, individuals are less likely to respond to a person in need. attempted to understand and describe social action Peer Pressure: The social influence placed on individuals by others they consider equals. - actions and behaviors that individuals are conscious of and Social Loafing: An individual does not pull his or her weight in a group perform because others are around setting. Polarization: The tendency toward making decisions in a group that are more extreme. Groupthink: The tendency for groups to make decisions based on ideas and solutions that arise within the group without considering outside ideas. Culture: The beliefs, ideas, behaviors, actions, and characteristics of a group or society. Assimilation: The process by which an immigrant or minority takes up elements of mainstream culture. Assimilation is a specific type of socialization. To experience assimilation, a person must first have their own culture, then absorb elements of a new culture. Multiculturalism: The encouragement of multiple cultures within a community to enhance diversity. Subcultures: A group of people within a culture that distinguish themselves from the primary culture.  8.2 Socialization 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 8 - SOCIAL PROCESSESS, ATTITUDE AND BEHAVIOR Socialization: The process of internalizing the social norms and values expected in one’s society. Sanctions: Positive: A reward for a certain behavior. Negative: A punishment for a certain behavior. Formal Sanction: An official reward or punishment. Informal Sanction: A sanction that is not enforced or punished by an authority but that occurs in everyday interactions with other people. Ex: Asking someone to lower their voice in a movie theater. Norms: Determine the boundaries of acceptable behavior within a society. Mores: Informal norms with major importance for society and, if broken, can result in severe sanctions. Ex: Taboos: Considered unacceptable by almost every culture (like Drug abuse is not socially acceptable. “Right / Wrong” cannibalism or incest). Folkways: Informal norms that are less significant, yet Stigma: The extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group they still shape our everyday behavior. Ex: Holding a based on perceived differences form the rest of society. door open for someone. “Right / Rude” Deviance: Violation of norms, rules, or expectations in a society. Differential Deviance can be learned through our interactions with Association Theory: others. People commit crimes, at least in part, because of their associations with other people. Conformity: Changing beliefs or behaviors in order to fit into a group or society. Compliance: When individuals change their behavior based on the requests of others. Obedience: A change in behavior based on a command from someone seen as an authority figure.  8.3 Attitudes and Behavior 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 8 - SOCIAL PROCESSESS, ATTITUDE AND BEHAVIOR Attitudes: Tendencies toward expression of positive or negative feelings or evaluations of something. Attitude has 3 components: Affective, behavioral, and cognitive. Functional Attitudes States that there are four functional areas of Theory: attitudes: knowledge, ego expression, adaptability, and ego defense. Learning Theory: States that attitudes are developed through forms of learning: direct contact, direct interaction, direct instruction, and conditioning. Elaboration States that attitudes are formed and changed through Likelihood Model: different routes of information processing based on degree of elaboration: central route processing, peripheral route processing. Social Cognitive States that attitudes are formed through watching Theory: others, personal factors, and the environment. People change their behavior or attitudes based on observation. Use "ALF-TELS" to remember the core concepts of the attitudes topic efficiently. Attitudes: Feelings & evaluations, 3 components. Learning Theory: Develops through contact, interaction, instruction, conditioning. Functional Attitudes Theory: 4 areas - knowledge, ego, adaptability, defense. Theory of Likelihood Model: Elaboration routes - central, peripheral. Elaboration: Attitudes shaped by processing depth. Learning from Social Environment: Observing others, personal factors.  9.1 Elements of Social Interaction 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 9 - SOCIAL INTERACTION Status: A position in society used to classify individuals. In-Group: The group you are in. Ascribed Status: Involuntarily assigned to an individual based on race, Out-Group: Group you compete with or oppose. gender, ethnicity, etc. Reference Group: Group you compare yourself to. Achieved Status: Voluntarily earned by an individual. Primary Group: Those that contain strong emotional bonds. Master Status: The status by which an individual is primarily identified. Secondary Group: Often temporary. Contain weaker bonds overall. Role: A set of beliefs, values, and norms that define the expectations of a certain status in a social situation. Gemeinschaft: Community Role Performance: Refers to carrying out behaviors of a given role. Gesellschaft: Society Role Partner: Another individual who helps define a specific role Groupthink: Occurs when members begin to conform to one within the relationship. another’s views and ignore outside perspectives. Role Set: A set of all roles that are associated with a status. Network: An observable pattern of social relationships between individuals or groups. Role Conflict: Difficulty managing MULTIPLE roles. Role Strain: Difficulty managing JUST ONE role. Organization: A group with identifiable membership that engages in certain action to achieve a common purpose. Groups: 2 or more people with similar characteristics that share a sense of unity. Bureaucracy: A rational system of administration, discipline, and control. Max Weber gave it six defining characteristics. Peer Group: A self-selected group formed around shared interests. Iron Law of Democratic or bureaucratic systems naturally shift to Family Group: Group to which you are born, adopted or married. Oligarchy: being ruled by an elite group. Kinship: Affinal Kinship: Individuals that are related by choice. Sect: A religious group that arose from a split from a larger E. g. marriage. religion. Consanguineous Kinship: Related through blood  9.2 Self-Presentation and Interacting with Others 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 9 - SOCIAL INTERACTION Basic Model of States that there are universal emotions and Expressing Emotions: expressions that can be understood across cultures. Social Construction Model States that emotions are solely based on the of Expressing Emotion: situational context of social interactions. Display Rules: Unspoken rules that govern the expression of emotions. Impression Refers to the maintenance of a public image, which Management: is accomplished through various strategies: Flattery, boasting, managing appearances, ingratiation, aligning actions, alter-casting. Remembering "BED-FAD-VAD" can assist you in recalling the main points of the topic on expressing emotions and communication. Basic Model of Expressing Emotions: Universal emotions & expressions. Dramaturgical People create images of themselves in the same way Emotions via Social Construction: Situational context of interactions. Approach: that actors perform a role in front of an audience. Display Rules: Unspoken rules governing emotion expression. Front & Back Stage: Dramaturgical Approach - public image management. Front Stage: Where you are seen by an audience. Assorted Strategies for Impression Management: Flattery, boasting, etc. Back Stage: You are not in front of the audience. Dramaturgical Approach: Like actors, creating images of self. Verbal Communication: Spoken, written, or signed words. Alternative to Words: Nonverbal Communication - body language, prosody, Verbal Communication: Communicating through spoken, written, or signed gestures. Diverse Animal Communication: Animals use body language, visual displays, words. vocalizations. Nonverbal Communicating through means other than the use Communication: of words. Examples: Body language, prosody, gestures. Animal Takes place not only between nonhuman animals, Communication: but between humans and other animals as well. Animals use body language, facial expressions, visual displays, scents, and vocalizations to communicate.  10.1 Social Behavior 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 10 - SOCIAL THINKING Interpersonal Is what makes people like each other. Influenced by Monogamy: Exclusive mating relationships. Attraction: physical attractiveness, similarity of thoughts and physical traits, self-disclosure, reciprocity, & proximity. Polygamy: One member of a sex having multiple exclusive relationships with members of the opposite sex. Aggression: A physical, verbal, or nonverbal behavior with the Polygyny: Male with multiple females. intention to cause harm or increase social dominance. Polyandry: Female with multiple males. Attachment: An emotional bond to another person. Usually refers Promiscuity: No exclusivity. to the bond between a child and caregiver. Mate Choice: (Intersexual selection). The selection of a Secure Requires a consistent caregiver. Child shows a strong mate based on attraction and traits. Attachment: preference for the caregiver compared to strangers. Altruism: A helping behavior in which the person’s intent is to Avoidant Occurs when a caregiver has little or no response to a benefit someone else at some cost to him or herself. Attachment: distressed child. Child shows no preference for the caregiver compared to strangers. Game Theory: Attempts to explain decision making between individuals as if they are participating in a game Ambivalent Occurs when a caregiver has an inconsistent response Attachment: to a child’s distress, sometimes responding Inclusive Fitness: A measure of an organism’s success in the population appropriately, sometimes neglectful. Child will based on how well it propagates ITS OWN genes. become distressed when caregiver leaves and is Inclusive fitness also includes the ability of those ambivalent when he or she returns. offspring to then support others. Disorganized Occurs when a caregiver is erratic or abusive; the child Attachment: shows no clear pattern of behavior in response to the caregiver’s absence or presence. Social Support: The perception or reality that one is cared for by a social network. Emotional Listening to, affirming, and empathizing with Support: someone’s feelings. Esteem Support: Affirms the qualities and skills of the person. Material Support: Providing physical or monetary support. Informational Providing useful information to a person. Support: Network Support: Providing a sense to belonging to a person. Foraging: Searching for and exploiting food resources. Mating System: Describes the way in which a group is organized in terms of sexual behavior.  10.2 Social Perception and Behavior 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 10 - SOCIAL THINKING Social Perception: (Social cognition). The way by which we generate impressions about people in our social environment. It contains a perceiver, target and situation. Social Capital: The practice of developing and maintaining relationships that form social networks willing to help each other Implicit Personality When we look at somebody for the first time, we pick Theory: up on one of their characteristics. We then take that characteristic and assume other traits about the person based off of that one characteristic we first picked up on Cognitive Biases: Primacy effect, recency effect, reliance on central traits, halo effect, just-world hypothesis, self-serving bias. Attribution Theory: Focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people’s behavior. Dispositional: Internal. Causes of a behavior are internal. attribution theory focuses on the tendency for Situational: External. Surroundings or context cause behavior. individuals to infer the causes of other people’s behavior Correspondent Focuses on the intentionality of a person’s behavior. Inference Theory: When someone unexpectedly does something that either helps or hurts us, we form a dispositional attribution; we correlate the action to the person’s personality. Fundamental The bias toward making dispositional attributions Attribution Error: rather than situational attributions in regard to the actions of others. Attribution Occurs when individuals must make judgments that Substitution: are complex but instead substitute a simpler solution or heuristic. Actor-Observer Bias: Tendency to attribute your own actions to external causes and others’ actions to dispositional causes.  10.3 Stereotypes, Prejudice and Discrimination 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 10 - SOCIAL THINKING Stereotypes: Cognitive. Occur when attitudes and impressions are made based on limited and superficial information. Self-Fulfilling When stereotypes lead to expectations and those Prophecy: expectations create conditions that lead to confirmation of the stereotype. Stereotype Concern or anxiety about confirming a negative stereotype Threat: about one’s social group. Prejudice: Affective. An irrational positive or negative attitude toward a person, group, or thing prior to an actual experience. Ethnocentrism: Refers to the practice of making judgments about other cultures based on the values and beliefs of one’s own culture. Cultural Refers to the recognition that social groups and cultures Relativism: should be studied on their own terms. Discrimination: Behavioral. When prejudicial attitudes cause individuals of a particular group to be treated differently from others.  11.1 Sociology: Theories & Institutions 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 11 - SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND DEMOGRAPHICS Functionalism: Focuses on the function of each part of society. Manifest Functions: Deliberate actions that serve to help a given system. Latent Functions: Unexpected, unintended, or unrecognized consequences of manifest actions. Conflict Theory: Based on the works of Karl Marx. Conflict Theory focuses on how power differentials are created and contribute to maintaining social order. It explains how groups compete for resources to attain power or superiority. Conflict Sociology: The study of the way that distinct groups compete for resources. Symbolic The study of the ways individuals interact through a Interactionism: shared understanding of words, gestures, and other symbols. The “meaning” of social symbols. Microsociology: The study of expressions, symbolic gestures, and other small, individual components of a society. Social Explores the ways in which individuals and groups make Constructionism: decisions to agree upon a given social reality. The “value” they place on certain social constructs. Social constructivism focuses on altering that constructed view. Rational Choice States that individuals will make decisions that maximize Karl Marx Theory: benefit and minimize harm. Expectancy Theory applies rational choice theory within groups. Feminist Theory: Explores the ways in which one gender can be subordinated. Conflict theory, first developed by Karl Marx, is a theory that society Social Well-established social structures that dictate certain is in a state of perpetual conflict because of competition for limited Institutions: patterns of behavior or relationships. resources. Conflict theory holds that social order is maintained by domination and power, rather than by consensus and conformity. 4 Tenets of Beneficence, nonmaleficence, respect for autonomy, and Medicine: justice.  11.2 Culture 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 11 - SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND DEMOGRAPHICS Culture: Encompasses the lifestyle of a group of people. Material Culture: Refers to the physical objects, resources, and spaces that people use to define their culture. Symbolic Culture: Includes the ideas associated with a cultural group. Cultural Lag: The idea that material culture changes more quickly than symbolic culture. Language: Spoken or written symbols combined into a system. Value: What a person deems important in life. "Many Smart Kids Very Brightly Read Newspapers By Running Notoriously." Belief: Something a person considers to be true. Each word in the sentence corresponds to the first letter of each concept: Ritual: Formal ceremonial behavior usually includes symbolism. Material Culture Symbolic Culture Norms: Societal rules that define the boundaries of acceptable Knowledge (Cultural Lag) behavior. Value Belief Ritual Norms Boundaries (Norms) Resources (Material Culture) Newspapers (Material Culture) Brightly (Symbolic Culture) Running (Symbolic Culture) Notoriously (Symbolic Culture)  11.3 Demographics 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 11 - SOCIAL STRUCTURE AND DEMOGRAPHICS Demographics: Statistics of populations. Most common are ageism, gender, race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and immigration. Fertility Rate: Average number of children born to a woman during her lifetime in a population. Birth & Mortality Usually measured as the number of births or deaths per Rate: 1000 people per year. Migration: The movement of people from one location to another. Ethnic Migrants: Ethnic groups emigrating to more industrialized countries tend to have ­fertility and ­mortality compared to the industrialized nation’s population. Demographic A model used to represent drops in birth and death Transition: rates as a result of industrialization. Social Movements: Organized to either promote (proactive) or resist (reactive) social change. Globalization: The process of integrating a global economy with free trade and tapping of foreign labor markets. Urbanization: The process of dense areas of population creating a pull for migration.  12.1 Social Class 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 12 - SOCIAL STRATIFICATION Social Stratification: The system by which society ranks Absolute: When one can’t acquire basic life necessities. categories of people into a hierarchy. Relative: When one is poor in comparison to a larger population. Functionalism: States that social stratification is necessary Ex: “Anyone who earns less than 60% of the median income is and results from the need for those with special intelligence, poor.” It is relative to the population, not based a hard number knowledge, and skills to be a part of the most important professions and occupations. A harmonious equilibrium. value. Socioeconomic Status: Relative Deprivation Theory: People seek to acquire something Ascribed Status: Involuntary, derives from clearly that others possess and which they believe they should have too. identifiable characteristics such as age and gender. They are not necessarily poor, but they may perceive that they are Achieved Status: Acquired through direct, individual efforts. lacking resources or money. It is all relative. Social Class: A category of people with shared socioeconomic characteristics. Social Reproduction: The passing on of social inequality, Prestige: Respect and importance tied to specific occupations especially poverty, from one generation to the next. or associations. Social Exclusion: A sense of powerlessness when individuals feel Power: The capacity to influence people. alienated from society. Anomie: Lack of social norms, or the breakdown of social Spatial Inequality: Social stratification across territories. bonds between individuals and society. Globalization: Integrating one’s economy to include foreign Strain Theory: Focuses on how anomic conditions can lead to societies. Has led to increased poverty as production shifts to deviance, and in turn reinforce social stratification. cheaper labor markets. Social Capital: Benefits provided by social networks. Or, the investment people make in their society in return for rewards. Meritocracy: Advancement up the social ladder is based on intellectual talent and achievement. Social Mobility: Allows one to acquire higher-level employment opportunities by achieving required credentials and experience. Poverty: In the USA, the poverty line is determined by the government’s calculation of the minimum income required for the necessities of life.  12.2 Epidemiology and Disparities 30 Day MCAT CHAPTER 12 - SOCIAL STRATIFICATION Incidence: The # of new cases of a disease per population at risk. "Epidemics Differ, Unequal Health Inequities Exist." Explanation: Prevalence: The # of cases of a disease per population. Epidemics Differ: Highlights the varying patterns of disease occurrence in different populations. Mortality: Deaths caused by a given Unequal Health Inequities Exist: Reminds you of disease. the disparities in health outcomes among Ethnic Migrants: Ethnic groups different groups. emigrating to more industrialized countries tend to have ­fertility and ­overall mortality compared to the industrialized nation’s population. Morbidity: The burden or degree of illness associated with a given disease. Affordable Care Act: (ACA). Attempts to increase health insurance coverage rates and reduce the cost of health care. Medicare: Covers people greater than 65 years old, those with end- stage renal disease, and those with ALS. Medicaid: Covers patients in significant financial need.