Biology and Behavior PDF

Biology and Behavior Brief History of Neuropsychology Franz Gall (1758-1828): earliest theory that behavior, intellect and personality might be linked to the brains anatomy. o Developed doctrine of phrenology: If a particular trait is well-developed, then the...

Biology and Behavior Brief History of Neuropsychology Franz Gall (1758-1828): earliest theory that behavior, intellect and personality might be linked to the brains anatomy. o Developed doctrine of phrenology: If a particular trait is well-developed, then the part of the brain responsible for that trait would expand ▪ Gall believed that this expansion would cause the brain to push out on the skull and cause a bulge in the head o Thought that you could measure brain power by measuring the size of the skull o Generated serious research on brain functions even though theory was false. Pierre Flourens (1794-1867): first to study the major functions of the brain o Extirpation/ablation: various parts of the brain are surgically removed and the consequences are observed. ▪ Work was done on pigeons and rabbits o This led to the discovery that the brain had specific parts for specific functions William James (1842-1910): father of American psychology o Functionalism: a system of thought that studied how mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment John Dewey (1859-1952): Was a part of the inception of functionalism o Believed that psychology should focus on the study of an organism as a whole as it functioned to adapt to the environment. Paul Broca (1824-1880): Examined behavioural defects of people with brain damage o First to demonstrate that specific impairments could be linked to specific brain lesions o Broca’s Area: area of the brain where a lesion causes the person to be unable to talk. Found on the elft side of the brain Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894): measured the speed of a nerve impulse o Turned psychology into a natural science field Sir Charles Sherrington (1857-1952): found the existence of a synapse o Though it was an electrical process, but it is actually a chemical process Organization of the Human Nervous System Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems Sensory Neurons (afferent neurons): transmit sensory information from receptors to the spinal cord and the brain Motor Neurons (efferent neurons): transmit motor information from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands Interneurons: found between the above two neurons and are the most abundant. o Mainly found in the brain and spinal cord and linked to reflexive behavior ▪ Reflex Arc: neural circuits that control this behavior  Central Nervous System: composed of brain and spinal cord Peripheral Nervous System: composed of nerve tissue and fibers that are outside of the brain and spinal cord. o Includes all 31 pairs of spinal nerves and 12 pairs of cranial nerves o Connects the CNS to the rest of the body and can also be divided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems Somatic Nervous System: sensory and motor neurons that are distributed throughout the skin, joints and muscles Autonomic Nervous System: regulates heartbeat, respiration rate, digestion, and glandular secretion o Manages involuntary muscles that are associated with many internal organs and glands o Also partakes in body temperature regulation by activating sweating or piloerection o Independent of conscious control The Autonomic Nervous System Can be subdivided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems o Branches act in opposition to each other Parasympathetic Nervous System: main goal is to conserve energy o Associated with resting and sleeping states o Acts to reduce heart rate and constrict the bronchi o Manages digestion through increased peristalsis and exocrine secretion o Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter responsible for parasympathetic responses in the body Sympathetic Nervous System: activated by stress and associated with “flight-or-fight” response o Increases heart rate and distrubte blood to muscles for locomotion o Increases blood glucose concentration o Relaxes the bronchi o Decreases digestion and peristalsis o Dilates the eyes o Epinephrine is released into the bloodstream. Organization of the Brain Brain is covered by a thick sheath of protective tissue called the meninges o These help protect the brain, keep it anchored to the skull and resorb cerebrospinal fluid o Composed of three layers: dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater Cerebrospinal fluid: aqueous solution where the brain and spinal cord rest o Produced by cell that line the ventricles (internal cavities of the brain)  Brain can be divided up into three subdivisions: the hindbrain, the midbrain, and the forebrain o Basic survival brain structures are located at the base of the brain o More complex functioning brain structures are located higher up Brain Stem: the hindbrain and midbrain were brain structures that were developed earlier o This is the most primitive region of the brain o Forebrain developed later. This includes the limbic system: group of neural structures that are primarily associated with emotion and memory. Cerebral Cortex: the most recent evolutionary development of the human brain o Outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres o Associated with many things such as language processing, problem solving, impulse control or long-term planning. The brain develops from the neural tube. The tube is composed of three swellings which correspond to the hindbrain, the midbrain and the forebrain o The hindbrain and the forebrain then divide into two swelling o A mature neural tube will have five total swellings Hindbrain (Rhombencephalon) Located where the brain meets the spinal cord Controls balance, motor coordination, breathing, digestion and general arousal (sleep/wake) In essence, the hindbrain manages vital functions that are necessary for survival The rhombencephalon divides into two distinct areas as the tube develops: o Myelencephalon: this forms into the medulla oblongata ▪ Medulla is responsible for regulating vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure o Metencephalon: forms the pons and the cerebellum ▪ Pons lie above the medulla and contain the sensory and motor pathways between the cortex and the medulla ▪ Cerebellum is at the top of the hindbrain and mushrooms out of the pons.  Helps in maintaining posture/balance & coordinates the body’s movements Alcohol impairs the function of this. Alcohol’s effects are similar to if the cerebellum was damaged. Midbrain (mesencephalon) Receives sensory and motor information from the rest of the body Associated with involuntary reflex responses that are triggered by visual or audio stimuli. Location of several prominent nuclei. However, two are collectively called the colliculi o Superior Colliculi: receives visual sensory input o Inferior Colliculi: receives sensory information from the auditory system Forebrain (prosencephalon) Associated with complex perceptual, cognitive and behavioral processes Associated with emotion and memory Greatest influence on human behavior since its function is associated with intellectual and emotional capacities that is most characteristic of humans. o Not necessary for survival. During development, forebrain divides into two sections: o Telencephalon: forms the cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, and limbic system o Diencephalon: forms the thalamus, hypothalamus. Posterior pituitary gland and pineal gland. Methods of Mapping the Brain Neuropsychology: the study of functions and behaviors associated with specific regions of the brain Doctors can study brain lesions on human patients with existing conditions, but it is difficult since the lesions are usually not specific. o I.e. – the brain is damaged in multiple locations and it is difficult to attribute an impairment to a specific lesion in a specific area of the brain. Instead we can study lab animals by using extirpation to precisely define where lesions are located. More ethical method is to electrically stimulate the brain and then record its activity o Allows for the creation of cortical maps o Relies on the assistance of the patient who must be awake and alert o I.e. – A specific part of the brain is electrically stimulated, and the patient’s behavior or actions are observed Electroencephalogram (EEG): involves placing electrodes on the scalp and the electrodes are used to record the electrical activity produced by the brain o Usually can only detect larger groups of neuron o This procedure is non-invasive, so it is preferred in humans Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF): detects broad patters of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain. o Noninvasive procedure since it uses a radioactive gas that can be detected  o Relies on the assumption that when a specific cognitive function activates a certain part of the brain, the blood flow to those regions increases. Also many scanning methods: o Computed Tomography (CT): multiple X-rays are taken at different angles and processed by a computer to cross-sectional slice images of the tissue o PET (positron emission tomography) scan: radioactive sugar is injected and absorbed into the body. ▪ Dispersion and uptake of sugar throughout the target tissue is imaged. o Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): uses a magnetic field to interact with hydrogen and map out hydrogen dense regions of the body o Function magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): Uses same technique as MRI, but measures the changes associated with blood flow ▪ Useful for monitoring neural activity since increased blood flow usually means that there is a neuronal activation. Parts of the Forebrain Thalamus Serves as an important relay station for incoming sensory information o Includes all senses except for smell Once information is received, the thalamus sorts and transmits them to the appropriate cerebral cortex Hypothalamus Can be subdivided into the lateral hypothalamus, ventromedial hypothalamus, and anterior hypothalamus This serves homeostatic functions. I.e – maintains a stable balance within the body o Regulates metabolism, temperature, and water balance Also involved in emotional experiences during high arousal states o E.g. - Aggressive behavior and sexual behavior Also helps in the control of some endocrine functions and the autonomic nervous system that is directly tied to its main function of maintaining homeostasis o For the autonomic nervous system, it drives the behaviors of hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior. Lateral Hypothalamus (LH): Special receptors that detect when the body needs more food or fluids o “The hunger center” Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH): provides signals to stop eating o “Satiety Center” Anterior Hypothalamus: controls sexual behavior. Damage of this leads to permanent inhibition of sexual activity. o Also regulates sleep and body temperature Other parts of the Diencephalon Posterior Pituitary: compromised of axonal projections form the hypothalamus and is the site of release for the hypothalamic hormones: antidiuretic hormones (ADH/vasopressin) & oxytocin. Pineal Gland: The key player in several biological rhythms o Secretes melatonin (regulates the circadian rhythms) o Also receives direct signals from the retina so that it can coordinate with sunlight Basal Ganglia Located in the middle of the brain and coordinate muscle movements as they receive information from the cortex Relays information to the brain and the spinal cord after the information is received Extrapyramidal System: gathers information about body position and carries the information to the central nervous system o Does not function directly through motor neurons In essence, the basal ganglia helps make our movements smooth and our posture steady Parkinson’s disease: Associated with destruction of portions of the basal ganglia o Characterized by jerky movements and uncontrolled resting tremors Limbic System Comprises a group of interconnected structures that loop around the central portion of the brain Primarily associated with emotion and memory Septal Nuclei Contains a primary pleasure center of the brain Mild stimulation is reported to be intensely pleasurable Associated with addictive behavior Amygdala Plays an important in defensive and aggressive behaviors (fear and rage) Lesions result in the significant reduction of aggression and fear Lesions also result in docility (submissive) and hypersexual states Hippocampus Vital role in learning and memory processes Helps consolidate information to form long-term memories and can redistribute remote memories to the cerebral cortex Uses fornix (long projections) to communicate with the rest of the nervous limbic system Anterograde Amnesia: not being able to establish new long-term memories o Memories before are kept intact o This is associated with lesions to the hippocampus. Retrograde Amnesia: memory loss of events that transpired before a brain injury Cerebral Cortex This is the outer surface of the brain and is sometimes called the neocortex. o This is the most recent region to evolve Has numerous bumps (gyri) and folds (sulci) o This increases the surface area of the brain Cerebrum is divided into two halves called the cerebral hemispheres Cortex surface is divided into four lobes: Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, & Temporal All of the lobes are interdependent of each other, even though they seem independent. Frontal Lobe Comprised of two basic regions: prefrontal cortex and the motor cortex Prefrontal cortex manages executive function by supervising and direction the operations of other brain regions Supervises processes associated with perception, memory, emotion, impulse control, and long-term planning o E.g. – role of prefrontal cortex is not to store memory, but to remind the individual that he or she has something to remember at all Association Area: integrates information from different cortical regions o E.g. – may need multiple inputs to solve a complex puzzle, or plan Damage to this impairs overall supervisory functions o Person may be more impulsive and less in control Primary Motor Cortex initiates voluntary motor movements by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord towards the muscles Located on the precentral gyrus (this is located just in front of the central sulcus which divides the frontal and parietal lobes) Projection Area: where a specific area only performs a single simple perceptual or motor task. Neurons are arranged systematically according to the parts of the body to which they are connected. o Can be visualized through the motor homunculus: depicts the location of how the neurons are arranged Broca’s Area Important in speech production, and is found in the dominant hemisphere of people (usually the left hemisphere) Parietal Lobe Located to the rear of the frontal lobe Somatosensory cortex is located on the postcentral gyrus (just behind the central sulcus) o The destination for all incoming sensory signals for touch, pressure, temperature and pain o Closely related to the motor cortex and together they can be called the sensorimotor cortex o Also has a homunculus that is similar to the motor cortex one Parietal lobe also includes a region associated with spatial processing and manipulation o Located in the central region of the parietal lobe o Region makes it possible to orient one self and other 3-d objects in space Occipital Lobe Located at the rear of the brain and it contains the visual cortex (striate cortex) o Striate simply means that something is striped or furrowed o More detail in the next chapter but it is one of the most understood brain regions May also be involved in learning and motor control. Temporal Lobe Location of the auditory complex and Wernicke’s area Auditory Cortex: primary site of most sound processing o Includes speech, music, and other sound information Wernicke’s area: associated with language reception and comprehension Temporal lobe also functions in memory processing, emotion and language Electrical stimulation to the temporal lobe can evoke memories for past events Cerebral Hemispheres and Laterality Cerebral hemispheres usually communicate contralaterally. This means that one side of the brain communicates with the opposite side of the body.  o E.g. – motor neurons on the left side of the brain activate movements on the right side of the body Can also communicate ipsilaterally. I.e, communicates with the same side of the body o E.g. – hearing Dominant Hemisphere: primarily analytical in function which makes it well-suited for managing details o Language, logic and math skills are located in this hemisphere o Usually the left side of the brain for either hand dominance. Non-dominant Hemisphere: associated with intuition, creativity, music cognition, and spatial processing o Simultaneously processes different pieces of stimuli and assembles them into a holitic image o Less prominent role in language ▪ More sensitive to the emotional tone and permits us to recognize others’ moods based on visual and auditory cues o Usually the right side of the brain The dominant hemisphere screens incoming language to analyze its content, and the non-dominant hemisphere interprets it according to its emotional tone. Influences of Behavior Neurotransmitters Acetylcholine Neurotransmitter found in the central and peripheral nervous systems In PNS: used to transmit nerve impulses to the muscles o Used by the parasympathetic nervous system and a small portion of the sympathetic (innervate sweat glands) In the CNS: linked to attention and arousal Epinephrine & Norepinephrine These two along with dopamine are a part of the Catecholamines class of neurotransmitters o Also known as monoamines or biogenic amines  o All of these play a role in the experience of emotions Epinephrine (Adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) are involved in the control of alertness and wakefulness Primary transmitter of the sympathetic nervous system, it promotes the flight-or-fight response Norepinephrine is more commonly a local level neurotransmitter o Low levels associated with depression o High level with anxiety and mania Epinephrine is secreted form the adrenal medulla and acts systematically as a hormone Dopamine Plays a role in movement and posture Found in high concentrations in the basal ganglia (helps in smooth movement and maintaining postural stability) Imbalances have been found to play a role in schizophrenia o Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia: argues that delusion. Hallucinations and agitation associated with schizophrenia arise from either too much dopamine or from an oversensitivity to dopamine Parkinson’s disease is also associated with loss of dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia. o Leads to resting tremors, jerky movements and postural instability Serotonin Classified as a monoamine or biogenic amine neurotransmitter Plays a role in regulating mood, eating, sleeping, and dreaming Plays a role in mania and depression o An oversupply produces mania o Undersupply produces depression GABA, Glycine, and Glutamate -aminobutyric acid (GABA): produces inhibitory postsynaptic potentials o Plays a role in stabilizing neural activity in the brain o Exerts its effects by causing hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane Glycine: Also known as one of the twenty proteinogenic amino acids o Serves as an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS ▪ Does this by increasing the chloride influx into the neuron ▪ Causes the hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane o Similar to GABA Glutamate: another amino acid o Excitatory transmitter in the CNS Peptide Neurotransmitters It is suggested that peptides play a role in neurotransmission These peptides are known as neuromodulators (or called neuropeptides) Involves a more complicated chain of events as compared to normal transmitters o Therefore, are relatively slow and have longer effects on the postsynaptic cell  Endorphins: the most important peptides to know. These are the body’s natural painkillers that are produced by the brain. o Endorphins and their relatives, the enkephalins, act in a similar fashion to morphine. Endocrine System The nervous system is relatively fast and uses neurotransmitters, the endocrine system is much slower and uses chemical messengers called hormones. Hypothalamus links the endocrine and nervous system and regulates the hormonal function of the pituitary glands o These two structures are relatively close to each other and they are connected through the hypophyseal portal system ▪ Hormones are released into this system form the hypothalamus to the pituitary Pituitary Gland: located at the base of the brain and is divided into two parts: anterior and posterior o Anterior Pituitary: the master since it releases hormones that regulate activities of endocrine glands ▪ This is controlled by the hypothalamus o The pituitary secretes many hormones into the bloodstream that are able to travel to other endocrine glands ▪ Once activated by the pituitary, a given endocrine gland will activate the hormone and secrete its own characteristic hormone into the bloodstream. Adrenal Glands: located at the top of the kidneys and divided into two parts: adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex o Adrenal Medulla: releases epinephrine and norepinephrine as part of the sympathetic nervous system o Adrenal Cortex: produces many corticosteroids: hormones like cortisol (stress hormone), Testosterone/Estrogen (sex hormones) Gonads: sex glands of the body. Ovaries in females & testes in males o Produce sex hormones at higher concentrations o Sex hormones increase libido and contribute to mating behavior/sexual function. Genetics and Behavior Innate Behavior: genetically programmed as a result of evolution and is seen in all individuals regardless of their environment or experience Learned Behaviors: not based on heredity but on experience and environment instead Adaptive Value: degree to which a trait or behavior positively benefits a species by influencing the evolutionary fitness of the species o This leads to adaption through natural selection Research can be conducted to determine the degree of genetic influence on individual differences between people. This can be conducted in three ways: o Family Studies: rely on assumption that genetically related individuals are similar genotypically than unrelated individuals. ▪ Limited since most families share the same environment as well. So it is hard to distinguish between “nature” and “nurture” o Twin Studies: Compares the concordance rates for a trait between monozygotic and dizygotic twins ▪ Concordance Rate: the likelihood that twins exhibit the same trait ▪ Assumes that both sets of MZ (100% identical genome) and DZ twins (~50% shared genome) share the same environment, so any differences between the two sets can be thought to be heredity factors. o Adoption Studies: Compare the similarity between biological relatives and the adopted child to similarities between adoptive relatives and the adopted child Development Prenatal Development of nervous system starts with neurulation at three to four weeks’ gestational age o Neurulation: occurs when the ectoderm overlying the notochord begins to furrow ▪ Forms a neural groove that is surrounded by two neural folds ▪ Cells at leading edge of neural fold are called the neural crest These cells will migrate throughout the body to form disparate (different) tissue: dorsal root ganglia, melanocytes and calcitonin- producing cells in the thyroid ▪ Remainder of furrow closes to form the neural tube Neural Tube is what ultimately forms the CNS o Has an alar plate: differentiates into sensory neurons o Basal Plate: differentiates into motor neurons o Tube eventually invaginates and folds on itself many times Embryonic brain begins as three swellings (prosencephalon, mesencephalon, rhombencephalon) and turns into five swellings (telencephalon, diencephalon, mesencephalon, metencephalon, myelencephalon)  Prenatal development occurs in the uterus of the mother, where the environment, temperature, chemical balance, orientation, and pressure are all carefully controlled and maintained relatively constant o Fetus is attached to uterine wall and placenta by the umbilical cord o Placenta transmits food, oxygen, and water to the fetus ▪ Returns water and waste to the mother o External influences can have negative effects on the development of the fetus ▪ Viruses and bacteria are able to cross the placenta o Some medicines given to help the mother can harm the fetus o Maternal malnutrition is the leading cause of abnormal development ▪ Protein deficiency slows growth and can lead to mental retardation and reduced immunity to diseases o Narcotic addiction produces chemically dependent infants o Smoking can lead to stunted or slowed growth o X-rays have also been linked to retardation Motor Reflex: a behavior that occurs in response to a given stimulus without higher cognitive input Infants have a number of primitive reflexes that disappear as they age o E.g. – Rooting reflex is the automatic turning of the head in the direction of a stimulus that touches the cheek. Reflexes could have been for survival purposes in the early stages of human evolution. But now are mainly used as a means in assessing infant neurological development o It is possible to tell whether neurological development is taking place in a normal fashion by comparing the point in time at which each reflex disappears Moro Reflex: abrupt movement of infant’s head makes them fling up their arms o They then slowly retract arms and begin crying  o May have been an adaption from living in trees and grasping onto a branch before falling o Should go away at four months. If it extends past that, then it suggests developmental difficulties. Asymmetry may hint at underlying neuromuscular problems. Babinski Reflex: causes the toes to spread apart automatically when the sole of the foot is stimulated Grasping Reflex: infants close his or her fingers around an object placed in hand o Adults with neurological diseases may experience this. Most infants typically develop motor skills at around the same age. As such, it is believed that these are innately programmed abilities for human infants. o Environment does play a part however. More enriched environments provide quicker development. Motor skills are broken down into two classes: Gross & Fine o Gross Motor Skills: movement of large muscle groups and whole body motion o Fine Motor Skills: smaller muscles of the fingers, toes and eyes ▪ Provide more specific and delicate movements Social Stranger Anxiety: fear of unfamiliar individuals begins at seven months Separation Anxiety: fear of being separated from parental figure begins at one year Play style progresses from: Solitary to onlooker at 1, then into parallel play at 2 o Parallel Play: children will play alongside one another but won’t influence the others behavior At age 3, child knows gender identity, engages in gender specific activities, and knowns full name At age 5, behavior is influenced by peers and romantic feelings for others develop Developmental Milestones do not need to be memorized, instead general trends should be noted o Gross motor skills progress from head to toe. I.e. – learn to move head first, then torso, then learn to walk o Skills develop at the center of your body first and then moves to the extremities o Social skills move from parent-oriented to self-oriented to other-oriented.  Cognition, Consciousness and Language Cognition Cognition looks at how our brains process and react to the information overload presented to us by the world. o Humans are the most advanced species in terms of complex thought and cognition. Due to the disproportionately large frontal lobe Information Processing Models The brain can be simplified and thought of as a computer: o Must encode information into a series of chemical and electrical signals o Brain must be able to store information so that it can be retrieved when needed o Must be a process by which the brain is able to retrieve information Dual-Coding Theory: both verbal association and visual images are used to process and store information o This builds redundancy and increases the chance that the information can be retrieved and used effectively. Information Processing Model: This model accounts for the fact that the brain cannot simply be simplified as a computer since it does not only encode factoids. It handles emotions, sensations, and memories which are much more complex. Four pillars of this model are: o Thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli o Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain (not responded to automatically) to be useful in decision making o Decisions made in one situation can be extrapolated and adjusted to help solve new problems (simulation modification) o Problem solving is dependent on the person’s cognitive level and also the context/complexity of the problem Cognitive Development Development of one’s ability to think and solve problems across a lifespan. o During childhood, this is limited by the pace of brain maturation Early cognitive development is focused on mastering the physical environment: learning how to control the body or interact with and manipulate the environment o Child starts being challenged by abstract thinking once the physical environment has been mastered. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development Jean Piaget: insisted that there are qualitative differences between the way that children and adults think o Divided the lifespan into four stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operation, and formal operational. Piaget’s way of learning: o Infants learned primarily through instinctual interactions with the environment ▪ E.g. – grasping reflex shows possibility of being able to grasp objects o Schema: includes a concept, behavior, or a sequence of events  ▪ As a child proceeds through the stages of development, the new information has to be placed in different schemata o Theorized that new information is processed through adaptation, which comes about from two processes: ▪ Assimilation: process of classifying new information into existing schemata ▪ Accommodation: existing schemata are modified to encompass new information. Sensorimotor Stage: birth to two years of age. Prominence of circular reactions o Child learns to manipulate their environment in order to meet their physical needs o Primary Circular Reactions: repetition of body movements that originally occurred by chance o Secondary Circular Reactions: occur when manipulation is focused on something outside of the body. ▪ E.g. – throwing a toy ▪ This action is repeated since it usually garners a response from the environment o Object Performance is what ends the sensorimotor stage of development ▪ Understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of view ▪ E.g. – “Peek a Boo” is entertaining since the child think that you have just come into existence. ▪ This marks the beginning of representational thought – where the child begins to create mental representations of external objects and events. Preoperational Stage: 2-7 years old. Symbolic thinking, egocentrism, & centration o Symbolic Thinking: ability to pretend, play, make-believe, and have imagination. o Egocentrism: inability to imagine what another person may think or feel o Centration: tendency to focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon, or the inability to understand the concept of conversation. Concrete Operational Stage: 7-11 years old. o Can understand conversation and consider the perspectives of others o Able to engage in logical though as long as they are working with concrete objects of information Formal Operational Stage: starts at 11 years’ old o Marked by the ability to think logically about abstract ideas. ▪ Person is able to reason about abstract concepts and problem solve. o E.g. – Pendulum Experiment: adolesecents used actual scientific method of holding all variables except one constant and measuring the frequency while children simply randomly put together different combinations of parameters. Role of Culture in Cognitive Development Lev Vygotsky: proposed that driving force of cognitive development was the child’s internalization of his or her culture (including interpersonal and societal rules, symbols, and language) Cognitive Change in Late Adulthood Reaction time generally increases in early adulthood while time-based prospective memory (ability to remember to perform a task at a specific time) declines with age. Intellectual changes also occur: IQ drops significantly between 30 and 40 o Fluid Intelligence: problem-solving skills ▪ This peaks in early adulthood o Crystallized Intelligence: use of learned skills and knowledge ▪ Peaks in middle adulthood o Both of these types of intelligence tend to decline with age o Decline is not uniform and is based on education, how often intellectual activities are performed, socialization, and a stimulating environment. ▪ An increase in any of these has been shown to be protective against intellectual decline. Dementia: intellectual decline that is not benign. Begins with impaired memory, but then progresses to impaired judgment and confusion. Personality changes also are often a result o Most common cause is Alzheimer’s disease o Vascular dementia is caused by high blood pressure which causes mini-clot in the brain. This is a common cause of dementia as well. Heredity, Environment, and Biological Factors Cognition can be affected by a wide variety of factors o E.g. – conditions with the brain itself, genetic/chromosomal conditions, metabolic derangements, and long term drug use, and the environment Parenting styles may influence development by rewarding, punishing, or indifference towards a particular skill. Intellectual disabilities can also be caused by genetic diseases o E.g. – Down’s syndrome or Fragile X syndrome Can also be caused by chemical exposure, illness, injury or trauma during birth o Alcohol use during pregnancy can cause fetal alcohol syndrome o Infections in brain may cause electrical abnormalities which slow development o Complication at birth, especially those which disrupt oxygen supply, may affect cognition. o Shaken baby syndrome is when trauma causes cognition to be affected in an infant. Delirium: rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and is caused by medical causes. o Can result from electrolyte or pH disturbance, malnutrition, low blood sugar, infection, drug reaction, alcohol withdrawal or pain Problem Solving and Decision-Making Mental Set: tendency to approach similar problems in the same way Functional Fixedness: inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner Types of Problem Solving Trial and Error Various solutions are tired until one is found that seems to work Less sophisticated and only effective when there are relatively few possible solutions Algorithms Formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem Can be mathematical or a set of instructions which is designed to automatically produce a solution Deductive (Top-down) Reasoning Starts from a set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information that is given Inductive (bottom-up) Reasoning Creates a theory via generalizations Starts with specific instances and then draws a conclusion from them. Heuristics, Biases, Intuition, and Emotion The above four methods are used to speed up or simplify the process of decision making Con is that they may lead to a short-sighted or problematic solution Heuristics Simplified principles to make decisions o I.e. – Rules of thumb Availability Heuristic: used to decide how likely something is based on how easily similar instances can be imagined Representativeness Heuristic: categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical or representative image of the category. o May lead to base rate fallacy: using prototypical factors while ignoring numerical information Have a high potential to lead the decision astray, but are highly effective and quick method that can be effectively used by experts in a certain field. o E.g. – Chess Bias and Overconfidence Disconfirmation Principle: when a potential solution to a problem fails during testing, this solution should be discarded. Confirmation Bias: tendency to focus on information that fits an individual’s beliefs, while rejecting information that goes against them. o May lead to disconfirmation principle being violated o Also contributes to overconfidence Belief Perspective: inability to reject a particular belief even though there is clear evidence to the contrary. These can all impede a person’s analysis of available evidence. Intuition Ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence o i.e. – person simply “feels” as if they are correct  Recognition-Primed decision model: brain sorts through a wide variety of information to match a pattern o Over time, can gain enough experience to be able to do this automatically. Emotion Subjective experience of a person in a certain situation Relates to the fact that how a person feels influences how a person thinks and makes decisions. o E.g. – angry person more likely to engage in riskier decision-making. Doesn’t only involve the emotions that person does feel, but also the emotions that a person expects to feel in that situation. o E.g. – a person who thinks that a car will make them feel more powerful, will be more inclined to buy a car. Intellectual Functioning –an all-encompassing definition of intelligence How is intelligence defined? What makes someone more intelligent than someone else? Multiple Intelligence Howard Gardner’s theory stipulates that there are seven different types of intelligence: o Linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal Argues that Linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligence are those that are most values in Western culture. Variations in Intellectual Ability Spearman’s “g factor”: theory based on the observation that performance on different cognitive tasks is usually positively correlated. This indicates that an underlying factor or variable is playing a role. o Basis of many intelligence testing tests. Intelligence quotient (IQ): method of obtaining a standardized underlying variable by taking a standardized test mental age o Stanford-Binet IQ test: IQ = chronolgical age ∗ 100 o A normal distribution centered around a score of 100 was found from the original study Variations in intellectual ability can be attributed to many determinants: genes, environment, and education experiences. o Parental expectations, socioeconomic status and nutrition also play a role Consciousness The level of awareness of both the world and one’s own existence within the world States of Consciousness Accepted states are: alert; dreaming, sleep, and altered state of consciousness o Altered states can result from hypnosis, mediation, and drug-induced ▪ Can also result from sickness, dementia, delirium and coma Alertness State of consciousness where we are awake and able to think o Are able to perceive, process, access information, and express the information verbally. Have a certain level of physiological arousal – cortisol levels tend to be higher and EEG waves indicate that the brain is in a working state Alertness is maintained by neurological circuits in the prefrontal cortex at the very front of the brain o Fibers from cortex communicate with the reticular formation (neural structure that is located in the brainstem) ▪ This keeps the cortex awake and alert o Injury to these circuits results in a coma Sleep Long term sleep deprivation has been linked to diminished cognitive performance and to the development of chronic diseases such as obesity and diabetes. Stages of Sleep Studied by using electroencephalography (EEG) to record brain wave activity while sleeping. o Record the average of the electrical patterns within different portions of the brain Four EEG patterns for different stages of brain activity: beta, alpha, theta and delta o Fifth wave corresponds to REM sleep – where most of our dreaming happens Sleep cycles form a complete cycle that lasts ~90 mins. Beta and Alpha Waves Correspond to brain activity when we are awake Beta Waves: high frequency and occur when the person is alert or attending to a mental task that requires concentration. o Occur when neurons are randomly firing Alpha Waves: awake but relaxing state with our eyes closed o Slower and more synchronized than beta waves Sleep Schedule First stage: sleep that is characterized by theta waves o Irregular wave forms and higher voltages Second Stage: EEG shows theta waves along with sleep spindles and K complexes Stage 3 & 4 or Slow Wave Sleep: EEG waves grow progressively slower o Low frequency and high voltage waves are called delta waves o Hard to wake someone up from their sleep o Associated with cognitive recovery and memory consolidation o Also associated with increased growth hormone release Non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep: Composed of the above four stages Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep: interspread between the above cycles  o Arousal levels reach that of wakefulness, but the muscles in the body are paralyzed o Paradoxical Sleep: since the heart rate, breathing patterns, and EEG mimic wakefulness, but individual is asleep. o Dreaming is most likely to occur in this stage and associated with memory consolidation ▪ REM for procedural memory consolidation and SWS for declarative memory consolidation. Sleep Schedules and Changes to Sleep Cycles Sleep cycle: Single complete progression through the sleep stages Early in the night, SWS predominates the brain: brain falls into deep sleep and then into more wakeful states Later in the night, REM sleep dominates Length of sleep cycle increases from approximately 50 minutes for children to 90 minutes for adults. o Children spend more time in SWS than adults Disruption of SWS and REM can result in diminished memory Sleep disruption causes diminished cognitive performance Sleep and Circadian Rhythms Internally generated rhythms that regulate the daily cycle of waking and sleeping.  Approximates a 24-hour cycle to mirror a normal day on earth. It is somewhat affected by light Sleepiness can be partially attributed to melatonin – a serotine derived hormone that comes from the pineal gland o The retina has a direct connection to the hypothalamus (controls pineal gland) ▪ Thus decreasing light stimulates the release of melatonin Cortisol is a steroid hormone that is produced by the adrenal cortex o Levels slowly increase during early morning since an increase in light causes the release of corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) from the hypothalamus o CRF causes the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) from the anterior pituitary ▪ This stimulates cortisol release which contributes to an alert state Dreaming ~75% of dreaming occurs in REM, but body shift to dreamlike state after stage 2 sleep is entered. o REM dreams are longer and more vivid than NREM dreams Activation-Synthesis theory: dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry o Activation mimics incoming sensory information and can also consist of pieces of stored memories, desires, needs, and other experiences. o Cortex then attempts to stich the unrelated information together to form an incoherent yet familiar dream Problem-Solving dream theory: dreams are a way of solving problems o Since they are unbound by the normal world’s rules, dreams allow for a different perspective on obstacles Cognitive process dream theory: Dreams are simply the sleeping counterpart of our stream of consciousness while we are awake. Neurocognitive models of dreaming: seek to unify biological and psychological perspective on dreaming o Attempting to do so by correlating the subjective, cognitive experiences of dreaming with the measurable physiological changes. Sleep Disorders Dyssomnias: disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep o E.g. – insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea Parasomnias: abnormal movement or behaviors during sleep o E.g. – night terrors and sleep walking These disorders usually occurring during NREM sleep Insomnia: difficulty falling asleep or staying asleep and is the most common sleep disorder. o Can be caused by anxiety, depression, medications, or disruption of sleep schedules Narcolepsy: Lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep  o Cataplexy: loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours ▪ Usually caused by an emotional trigger o Sleep Paralysis: sensation of being unable to move despite being awake o Hypnagogic & hypnopompic hallucinations: hallucinations when going to sleep or waking up Sleep Apnea: inability to breathe during sleep. People often awaken many times a night in order to breathe. Can be obstructive or central o Obstructive: when a physical blockage in the pharynx or trachea prevents airflow o Central: brain fails to send signals to the diaphragm to breathe Night Terrors: periods of intense anxiety that occur during SWS o Usually occurs in children and has symptoms of screaming and sympathetic system overdrive (increased heart rate, and breathing) Sleepwalking or Somnambulism: usually occurs during SWS Sleep Deprivation: can result from one night without sleep, or multiple night with poor- quality sleep o Results in irritability, mood disturbances, decreased performance, and slowed reaction time. o Extreme deprivation may lead to psychosis o REM rebound: an earlier onset and greater duration of REM sleep after one is permitted to sleep normally after a period of deprivation. Hypnosis State in which a person appears to be in control of their functions, but is in a highly suggestible state Starts with hypnotic induction: hypnotist seeks to relax the subject and increase the subject’s level of consciousness Has been used successfully for pain control, psychological therapy, memory enhancement, weight loss, and smoking cessation Requires a willing personality and lack of skepticism from the patient to be effective. Meditation Quieting of the mind for some purpose In western culture, usually used for counseling and psychotherapy since it produces a sense of relaxation and relief Causes physiological changes such as reduced heart rate and blood pressure Resembles stage 1 sleep on EEG Consciousness-Altering Drugs Depressants Reduce nervous system activity, this results in the sensation of relaxation and reduced anxiety. Alcohol is the most common Alcohol Increases activities of the GABA receptor  o Chloride channel that causes hyperpolarization of the membrane Causes general brain inhibition that results in diminished arousal Brain centers that prevents inappropriate behavior are also depressed by alcohol. This may make it seem as if one’s behavior is less inhibited than it actually is. Also increases dopamine levels to provide a mildly euphoric result At high doses, brain activity becomes more disrupted o Logical reasoning and motor skills are affected, and fatigue may result o I.e. – inability to recognize consequences of actions ▪ Alcohol myopia: short-sighted view of the world Long term effects of alcohol abuse include: cirrhosis and liver failure, pancreatic damage, gastric or duodenal ulcers, gastrointestinal cancer, and brain disorders o E.g. – Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome: deficiency in thiamine (Vitamin B1). Characterized by severe memory impairment along with changes in mental status and loss of motor skills. Barbiturates and Benzodiazepines Barbiturates: Historically been used as anxiety-reducing (anxiolytic) and sleep medications. o Includes amobarbital & phenobarbital o Have now been replaced by benodiazephines: Less susceptible to overdose ▪ Include alprazolam, lorazepam, diazepam, & clonazepam Both drugs work by increasing GABA activity which induces a sense of relaxation Highly addictive medications that can result in overdose (Especially if taken with alcohol) Stimulants Cause an increase in arousal of the nervous system by increasing the frequency of action potentials. Amphetamines Increase arousal by increasing the release of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin at the synapse o Also decreases the reuptake of these neurotransmitters o Results in an increase in arousal, a decreased appetite, decreased need for sleep Physiological effects: Increase heart rate and blood pressure Psychological effects: euphoria, hypervigilance, anxiety, delusions of grandeur, and paranoia Prolonged use of high dosages may result in brain damage or stroke o Long term users usually suffer from withdrawal that leads to depression, fatigue and irritability. Cocaine Purified from the leaves of the coca plant or can be created synthetically Works by decreasing the reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin o Use a different mechanism compared to amphetamines o Therefore, they have a similar effect as above  In addition to above properties, cocaine also has anesthetic and vasoconstrictive properties o Can be used in surgeries in highly vascularized areas (such as the nose and throat) o Properties can lead to heart attacks and strokes when used recreationally Crack: form of cocaine that can be smoked and is highly addicitve Ecstasy (3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine, MDMA) Acts as a hallucinogen combined with an amphetamine Similar mechanism and effects of amphetamines Physiological effects: increased heart rate and blood pressure, blurry vision, sweating, nausea, and hyperthermia Psychological Effects: euphoria, increased alertness, and an overwhelming sense of well- being and connectedness Opiates and Opioids Derived from the poppy plant – opium Opiates: naturally occurring forms of opium. E.g. – morphine & codeine Opioids: semisynthetic derivatives of opium. E.g. – oxycodone, hydrocodone & heroin Compounds bind to opioid receptors in the PNS & CNS o Causes a decreased reaction to pain and a sense of euphoria o Overdose can cause respiratory suppression – where the brain stops sending signals to breathe Heroin: created as a substitute for morphine but quickly turned into one of the most abused drugs. Once injected it is rapidly metabolized to morphine. o Heroin was once the widely abused opioid, but this has shifted to the prescription drugs now: oxycodone and hydrocodone. o Treated by using methadone – a long acting opioid with lower overdose risk Hallucinogens Includes lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and many types of mushrooms Exact mechanism is unknown, but proposed mechanism is thought to involve a complex interaction between various neurotransmitters (especially serotonin) Cause distortion of reality and fantasy, enhancement of sensory experiences, and introspection Physiologic effects: include heart rate and blood pressure, dilation of pupils and increased body temperature Marijuana Comes from the leaves of two plants: Cannabis sativa & Cannabis indica Active chemical is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) THX exerts its effects by acting at cannabinoid receptors, glycine receptors, and opioid receptors o Inhibits GABA activity and indirectly increases dopamine activity Physiological Effects: eye redness, dry mouth, fatigue, impairment of short-term memory, increased heart rate, increased appetite and lowered blood pressure  Psychologically: fall into categories of stimulant, depressant, and hallucinogen. Drug Addiction Related to the mesolimbic reward pathway – one of four dopaminergic pathways in the brain o Includes nucleus accumbens (NAc), the ventral tegmental area (VTA), and the medial forebrain bundle (MFB) – this is the pathway between the NAc & VTA. o Normally involved in motivation and emotional response and its activation accounts for the positive reinforcement of substance use Addiction pathway is activated by all substances that produce psychological depdendence Gambling and falling in love also activates this pathway Attention Attention refers to concentrating on one aspect of the sensory environment (Sensorium) Selective Attention Focusing on part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli o Acts as a filter between sensory stimuli and our processing systems o If stimulus is attended to, it is passed through the filter and analyzed further Originally was viewed as an all-or-nothing response o i.e. – if one stimulus is chosen to be focused on, then all other stimuli are lost Modern theory suggest that selective attention is probably more of a filter that allows us to focus on one thing while allowing other stimuli to be processed in the background o E.g. – cocktail party phenomenon: at a party when you are able to perceive your name being mentioned, even when in a deep conversation with somebody else Divided Attention Ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time Most new or difficult tasks require undivided attention and utilize controlled (effortful) processing Automatic processing can be used for familiar or routine tasks o This permits the brain to focus on other tasks with divided attention o Does not allow for innovation or rapid response to change Language Components of Language Phonology The actual sound of language Phenomes: are speech sounds. There are about 40 of these in English. Children must learn to produce and recognize the sounds of language and differentiate between them and environmental noises. Categorical Perception: ability to make distinction between whether or not speech sounds represent a change in the meaning of the language.  o This is an auditory example of constancy Morphology The structure of words Morphemes: the building blocks of words. Each connotes a particular meaning Semantics The association of meaning with a word Child must learn that certain combinations of phenomes represents certain physical objects or events and that words may refer to entire categories. Syntax Refers to how words are put together to form sentences Pragmatics Dependence of language on context and preexisting knowledge I.e. – manner in which we speak may differ based on the audience Affected by prosody: rhythms, cadence and inflection of our voices. Language Developments Babbling is an important precursor to language. o Almost all children (even deaf ones) spontaneously begin to babble within their first year ▪ Deaf children stop babbling quickly as they cannot hear Timeline of language acquisition: 12-18 months – children add 1 word per month; Starting at 18 months – “explosion of language”. Gestures, inflection and context are essential for understanding what the child is saying. o 18-20 months: children begin combining words o 2-3 years old: speak in longer sentences and vocabulary expands rapidly ▪ Involves a lot of errors of growth that involve grammatical errors o 5 years old: language is substantially mastered Language acquisition appears fairly easily for most children Nativist (Biological) Theory Noam Chomsky advocates for the existence of an innate capacity for language. o Transformation grammar: changes in word order that retain the same meaning Children learn to make these transformations effortlessly from an early age and concluded that this ability must be innate Language Acquisition Device (LAD): what the innate ability described above is called o Theoretical pathway in the brain that allows infants to process and absorb language rules Critical Period: Language acquisition is prime between two years and puberty o Later training is largely ineffective if no language training occurs during this period o Came from a case study in which a victim of child abuse was locked away, without contact, from the ages of 2-13. She was never able to master the rules of language, but was able to learn syntax  Sensitive Period: A time when environmental input has maximal effect on the development of an ability. Thought to be before the onset of puberty o I.e. – person can learn some aspects of language after this period, but can never fully master it. Learning (Behaviorist) Theory - B.F Skinner Language acquisition by operant conditioning. He explained acquisition through reinforcement o Parents and caregivers repeat and reinforce sounds that sound most like the language spoken by the parents o The infant, over time, perceives that certain sounds have little value and are not reinforced Accounts for the development of words and speech, but it does not explain the explosion of language that occurs during early childhood Social Interactionist Theory Language development focuses on the interplay between biological and social processes. o Development is driven by the child’s desire to communicate and behave in a social manner Allows for the role brain development in the acquisition of language. o As the biological foundation of language develops and children are exposed to language, the brain groups sounds and meanings together o Brain circuits are reinforced as the child interacts with others o Other actions are de-emphasized which results in the atrophy of circuits Influence of Language on Cognition Whorfian Hypothesis or Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis: suggests that our perception of reality is determined by the content of language o I.e. – language affects the way we think Points as to why this is true: o Language provides an original framework for understanding information o More expansive framework with more specific vocabulary allows for more sophisticated processing of that information and enhanced communication of that information to others Brain Areas and Language Both areas for speech production and language are found on the dominant side of the brain (usually left hemisphere) Broca’s area: located in the inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal lobe o Controls motor function of speech via connection to the motor cortex Wernicke’s Area: located in the superior temporal gyrus of the temporal lobe o Responsible for language comprehension Arcuate fasciculus: connects Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas. o Bundle of axons that allows appropriate association between language comprehension and speech production Aphasia: deficit of language production or comprehension o Broca’s (expressive) aphasia: Speech comprehension is intact, but patient has a reduced or non-existent ability to produce spoken language. o Wernicke’s (receptive) aphasia: motor production and fluency of speech is retained, but comprehension of speech is lost. ▪ Patients speak nonsensical sounds and inappropriate word combinations ▪ Often believe they are speaking and understanding perfectly well o Conduction Aphasia: speech production and comprehension are intact, but the patient is unable to repeat something that has been said.  Identity and Personality Self-Concept and Identity Self-Concept: our own internal list of answers to the question who am I? Self-Schema: self-given labels that carries a set of qualities with it o A major part in how we classify ourselves o E.g. – athlete: carries the qualities of youth, physical fitness Identity: individual components of our self-concept o E.g. – religious affiliations, sexual orientation o Can take a different identity in different social situations Types of Identity Gender Identity A person’s appraisal of themselves in terms of masculinity and femininity o Initially thought these were two extremes on a continuum, they are now assumed to be two separate dimensions ▪ This is since individuals can achieve high scored on scales of both masculinity and femininity Androgyny: State of being simultaneously masculine and feminine Undifferentiated: achieve low scores on both scales This is usually well defined by age three, but it can change over time Gender Schema: theory that suggests that the key components of gender identity are transmitted through cultural and societal means. Ethnic and National Identity Ethnic Identity: one’s ethnic group, where the members typically share a common ancestry, cultural heritage, and language. Nationality: identity that is based on political borders o Result of shared history, media, cuisine, and national symbols Symbols play a large role in each of these identities Other Types of Identity Compare ourselves to others in terms of age, class, religious affiliation, sexual orientation, etc. Many factors determine which identity will be enacted in particular situations Hierarchy of salience: We let the situation dictate which identity holds the most importance for us at any given moment. o The more important/prominent an identity, the more we conform to the role expectations of the identities. o Salience (importance) is determined by: the amount of work invested into the identity, rewards/gratifications associated with the identity, amount of self- esteem that is associated with the identity, and etc. Self-Evaluation Self-discrepancy theory: suggests that each person has three versions of themselves  o Actual Self: our self-concept or the way that we see ourselves as we currently are. o Ideal Self: The person that we would like to be o Ought Self: Our representation of the way others think we should be. o The closer that these three versions of self are to each other, the higher one’s self-esteem will be. Low Self-Esteem: are more critical of themselves o Take criticism from others poorly and only believe that people will accept them if they are successful o More likely to use drugs, be pessimistic, and to give up when facing frustration Self-Efficacy: One’s own belief in their ability to succeed. o Can vary between activity: are comfortable doing one thing, and feel powerless doing another. o Higher motivation to pursue high self-efficacy tasks Overconfidence: When self-efficacy levels become too high and leads one to take on tasks that they are not ready for. o Leads to frustration, humiliation, or sometimes injury. Opposite of overconfidence is also true: when self-efficacy is depressed beyond the point of recovery o E.g. – Dogs being shocked. Dogs who had no control over shocks gave up quickly and lost all motivation to escape the pain. o Learned Helplessness: the phenomenon of losing all motivation to get out of a negative situation. ▪ Considered a possible model for clinical depression Locus of Control: The way that one characterizes the influences in their lives. o Internal LOC: View themselves as controlling their own influence o External LOC: Life events are caused by luck or outside influence Formation of Identity Freud: Psychosexual Development Sigmund Freud believed that human psychology and human sexuality were inextricably linked o Believed that libido was present from birth o Believed that libidinal energy and the drive to reduce libidinal tension were the underlying dynamic forces that accounted for human psychological processes Five distinct stages were hypothesized o In each stage, children were faced with a conflict between social demands the desire to reduce libidinal tension o Fixation: occurs when child is overindulged or overly frustrated during a stage of development ▪ Causes anxiety which causes the child to form a personality pattern based on the particular stage. This persists into adulthood as a functional mental disorder known as neurosis  Oral Stage (0-1 year): Gratification is obtained by putting objects into the mouth, biting, and sucking. o Libidinal energy is centered on the mouth o Oral fixation would lead to excessive dependency Anal Stage (1-3 years): Libido is centered on the anus and gratification is gained through the elimination and retention of waste materials o Fixation results in orderliness – I.e. – OCD – wanting everything to be so orderly that it borders on the line of a mental disorder o Fixation can also result in messiness or sloppiness as an adult Phallic or Oedipal Stage (3-5 years): Centers around oedipal conflict for males and Electra conflict for females. o Oedipal Conflict: male child envies that father’s intimate relationship with his mother ▪ Fears castration by the father – removing testicles ▪ Wishes to eliminate father, but feels guilty about it ▪ The successful resolution of this conflict may include: identifying with the father, establishing sexual identity, and internalizing moral values. o Child must ultimately must de-eroticize or sublime their libidinal energy. ▪ Expressed in the oedipal conflict part of theory (for boys only) ▪ Sublimation may be expressed through collecting objects or focusing on schoolwork o Freud did not focus on the Electra effect as much, but stated that they have similar desires (competing with mother for the father) ▪ Penis Envy: young girls experience anxiety and a sense of inferiority when they realize they do not have a penis. Beginning of the Electra effect. Latency Stage: occurs once the child’s libido is sublimated. This lasts until puberty is reached Genital Stage: lasts from the beginning of puberty and through adulthood. o If prior development had proceeded correctly, the person should enter a healthy heterosexual relationship o If development had proceeded incorrectly, then disorders such as homosexuality, asexuality, or fetishism resulted. Erikson: Psychology Development Based on a series of crises that derive from the conflicts between needs and social demands. Emphasizes emotional development and interactions with the social environment. o Mastery of each stage is not required to move onto the next. o Erickson believed that each resolution should imbue an individual with skills and traits that can be carried through subsequent stages. Trust vs mistrust (0-1 year): If resolved successfully, child will trust their environment as well as themselves. o If mistrust wins, child will be suspicious of the world, possible throughout life. Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (1-3 years): Successful resolution would result in having a feeling of being able to exert control over the world and to exercise choice as well as self-restraint o Unfavorable outcome would be to have a sense of doubt and a persistent external locus of control. Initiative vs Guilt (3-6 years): Favorable outcome is a sense of purpose, ability to initiate activities, and the ability to enjoy accomplishment o Unfavorable outcome would be if the child was so overcome with fear of punishment, that they unduly restrict themselves or that they may overcompensate by showing off. Industry vs Inferiority (6-12 years): Favorable outcome would be a competent feeling child who is able to exercise their abilities and intelligence in the world. The child would be able to affect the world in the way that they desire o Unfavorable resolution is one in which there is: a sense of inadequacy, a sense of inability to act in a competent matter, and low self-esteem. Identity vs Role confusion (12-20 years): Stage encompasses physiological revolution o Favorable outcome would be fidelity: the ability to see oneself as a unique and integrated person with sustained loyalties. o Unfavorable outcome would result in a confused identity and a shifting personality. Intimacy vs Isolation (20-40 years): main crisis of young adulthood o Favorable outcomes are love, the ability to have intimate relationships with others, and the ability to commit oneself to another person and to their own goals. o Unfavorable outcome would be avoidance of commitment, alienation, and distancing of oneself from others and their own ideals. Generativity vs Stagnation (40-65 years): conflicts of middle age o Favorable outcome would result in an individual who is capable of being a productive, caring, and contributing member of society. o Unfavorable outcome would result from a crisis not being overcome. Would result in a sense of stagnation, and the person would become self-indulgent, bored and self-centered. Integrity vs Despair (>65 years): Conflict of old age  o If resolved, one will see wisdom: the detached concern with life itself ▪ Provides assurance in the meaning of life, dignity, and an acceptance of the fact that one’s life has been worthwhile. Readiness to face death. o If unresolved, there will be bitterness, a feeling of living a worthless life, and fear for their own impending death. Kohlberg: Moral Reasoning Personality development focuses on moral thinking, rather than resolving conflicts or urges. o As cognitive abilities grow, the world can be thought of in more complex and nuanced ways. This increased complexity directly affects the ways in which we resolve moral dilemmas and perceive the notion of right and wrong. o Observations were based on responses of subjects to hypothetical moral dilemmas ▪ E.g. – Heinz Dilemma: Man has a dying wife and must steal medicine from sleazy druggist who is selling it for a heavily inflated price. ▪ Kohlberg was interested in the reasoning behind the appraisal Based on the response of his participants, Kohlberg organized six distinct stages into three phases. Preconventional morality: typical preadolescent thinking that places an emphasis on the consequences of moral choices o Obedience: Stage 1 is concerned with avoiding punishment o Self Interest: stage 2 is about gaining rewards ▪ Instrumental relativist stage: Stage 2 can also be called this since it is based on the concept of reciprocity and sharing Conventional Morality: Second phase begins to develop in early adolescence and is signified by individuals beginning to see themselves in terms of their relationships to others. Overall phase is based on understanding and accepting social rules. o Conformity: Stage 3 places emphasis on seeking approval from others. o Law and Order: Stage 4 puts social order above all else.  Postconventional Morality: a level of reasoning that not everyone is capable of attaining. Based on social mores (customs) that may sometimes conflict with laws. o Social Contract: Stage 5 views moral rules as conventions that are designed to ensure the greater good. ▪ The reasoning behind these moral rules are focused on individual rights. o Universal Human Ethics: Decisions should be made in consideration of abstract principles. The above stages were viewed as progressive, where each stage was adopted and abandoned for the next one. Study critics argue that that it is bias towards individualistic societies and does not represent collectivist cultures. o Additionally, research was only performed on male subjects. Vygotsky: Cultural and Biosocial Development Was also focused on cognitive development. The engine driving this development would be the child’s internalization of various cultural aspects: rules, symbols, language, etc. o As internalization occurs, cognitive activity develops accordingly Zone of Proximal Development: skills and abilities that have not yet fully developed, but are in the process of developing. o Skills need to be gained with the help from knowledgeable others, usually an adult. Influence of Others on Identity Individual identities are as much a product of those around us as a product of our own internal growth Children generally imitate behaviors performed by someone who is like them. Child’s first models are their parents, but as they grow older, more relationships form. Siblings, teachers and media play an important role in a child’s life. o By adolescence, peers become the most important role models in life Role-Taking: children experimenting with other identities o e.g. – playing house or school o Good practice in later life: when a child begins to understand the perspectives and roles of others Theory of Mind: ability to sense how another’s mind works o Once developed, we begin to recognize and react to how others think about us o Become aware of judgements from the outside world Looking-glass self: the development of a personality in relation with societal contexts. o I.e. – others reflecting our selves back to ourselves. Or the concept of society judging us and taking into account their judgements to craft one’s own personality. Reference Group: Self-concept usually depends on who an individual is comparing themselves against. Personality Personality describes the set of thoughts, feelings, traits and behaviors that are characteristic of an individual. o Identity describes who we are while personality describes how we act and react to the world. The Psychoanalytic Perspective Psychoanalytic or psychodynamic theories of personality contain some of the most widely varying perspectives on behavior. o All have the common assumption that unconscious internal states motivate the overt actions of an individual and thus determine their personality. Sigmund Freud Proposed a structural model consisting of three models: id, ego, and superego ID: all the basic, primal, inborn urges to survive and reproduce. o Functions according to the pleasure principle: goal is to get immediate gratification that can relieve pent-up tension. o Primary Process: id’s response to frustration. ▪ Motto is to obtain satisfaction as soon as possible, not later. o Wish Fulfillment: using mental imagery to fulfill this need for satisfaction ▪ E.g. – daydreaming or fantasy Ego: Used to effectively reduce tension on a more permanent basis o Reality Principle: how the ego operates. It takes into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits the activity of the id. ▪ Guidance is referred to as secondary process o Goal of reality principle is to postpone the pleasure principle until satisfaction is actually achievable o The ego only comes into action when the demands of objective reality do not allow for the primary process mechanism to work. o The use of ego alongside with reality promotes the growth of perception, memory, problem solving, thinking and reality testing o The ego can never be independent of the id since it is powered by it. Instead the ego should be thought of as an organizer of the mind. Superego: has refined desires that are focused on the ideal self o Seen as the personality’s perfectionist ▪ Judges our actions and responds with pride at accomplishments or guilt at failures. o Superego can be divided into subsystems that are both a reflection of the morals taught to the child by caregivers: ▪ Conscience: collection of the improper action for which a child was punished ▪ Ego-Ideal: the proper actions for which a child is rewarded Was also stated that id, ego, and superego could fall into three main categories: o Conscious: thoughts to which we have conscious access o Preconscious: Thoughts that we are currently unaware of  o Unconscious: thoughts that have been repressed Instincts Freud also postulated that our behaviors can also be influenced by instincts Instinct: innate psychological representation of biological need o These are the propelling aspects of Freud’s dynamic theory of personality o Can fall into two types: ▪ Eros: life instincts that promote an individual’s quest for survival Thirst, hunger. Sexual needs ▪ Thanatos: death instincts that represent an unconscious wish for death and destruction. Defense Mechanisms How the ego relieves the anxiety between the clashing desires of the id and the superego o Have two common characteristics: ▪ They deny, distort or falsify reality ▪ They operate unconsciously Repression: ego’s way of forcing undesired thoughts and urges to the unconscious o Underlies many other defense mechanisms o Aim is to disguise threatening impulses that may find their way back to the consciousness Suppression is the more deliberate, conscious form of forgetting Regression: Reversion to an earlier developmental state o E.g. – older children may suck thumb or throw temper tantrum when stressed Reaction Formation: individuals suppress urges by unconsciously converting them into their exact opposites. o E.g. – hating something that you desperately want but can’t have. Projection: individuals attribute their undesired feelings to others. o i.e. blame others for the way that they feel o E.g. – I hate my parents turns into my parents hate me o Important part of personality analysis, and is the basis behind tests that are designed to gain insight into one’s minds ▪ Rorschach inkblot test relies on assumption that client projects their unconscious feelings onto the shape. ▪ Thematic Apperception test assumes that a story made up by a person will show insight into their own unconscious thoughts and feelings. Rationalization: justification of behaviors in a manner that is acceptable to self and to society. Displacement: transference of an undesired urge from one person or object to another o E.g. – anger at work transfers over to home Sublimation: transformation of unacceptable urges into socially acceptable behaviors. Carl Jung Thought of as libido as a psychic energy and not just a sexual one Defined the ego as the conscious mind and the unconscious mind was divided into two parts: o Personal Unconscious: similar to Freud’s notion of unconscious o Collective Unconscious: powerful system that is shared among all humans and considered to be a residue of the experiences from early ancestors. ▪ Building blocks are images of common experiences: e.g. devils and angels ▪ Images are referred to as archetypes Jungian Archetypes Persona: like a mask that we wear in public, it is apart of the personality that one presents to the world o Persona is adaptive to social interactions. The qualities that improve one’s social standing are emphasized, and other, less desirable, qualities were suppressed. Anima (feminine) & Animus (masculine): describes sex-inappropriate qualities o i.e. – feminine behaviors in males and masculine behaviors in females. Shadow: responsible for the appearance of unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings and actions in one’s own consciousness. Self The point of intersection between the collective unconscious and the personal unconscious This strives for unity: acts as the reconciler of opposites and promoter of harmony o Symbolized as a mandala (circle) Jung’s Dichotomies of Personality Extraversion (E) vs Introversion (I): extraversion is an orientation towards the external world while introversion is an orientation towards one’s inner, personal world Sensing (S) vs Intuiting (N): sensing is obtaining objective information about the world and intuiting which is the working of information abstractly  Thinking (T) vs Feeling (F): thinking is using logic and reason while feeling is using a value system or personal beliefs. Most individuals have both sides of each dichotomy present to some degree, but one usually tends to dominate. Myers-Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI): Jung laid the groundwork of this personality test. o Has the same categories as Jung’s dichotomies and includes an additional one: Judging (preferring orderliness) vs perceiving (preferring spontaneity) Other Psychoanalysts Alfred Adler Inferiority Complex: An individual’s sense of incompleteness, imperfection & inferiority o Striving for superiority is what drives one’s personality. o Striving enhances the personality when it is oriented towards benefitting society, but yields disorder when it is selfish. o Creative Self: force by which each individual shapes their uniqueness and establishes their personality o Style of life: manifestation of the creative self and describes a person’s unique way of achieving superiority ▪ Family environment is crucial for the proper molding of this Fictional Finalism: notion that an individual is motivated more by their expectations of their future than by past experiences. o i.e. – human goals are based on the fictional estimate of life’s values rather than the objective data from the past. Karen Horney Argued against Freud and suggested that personality is a result of interpersonal relationships. Neurotic (mental disorder) personalities are governed by one of ten neurotic needs o Each need is directed towards making life and interactions bearable o E.g. – need for affection/approval, need to exploit others, need for self- sufficiency/ independence. o Healthy people have this need to some degree, these needs become problematic if they fit at least one of the following criteria: ▪ Needs are disproportionate in intensity ▪ Needs are indiscriminate in application ▪ Needs partially disregards reality ▪ Needs have a tendency to provoke intense anxiety Horney’s primary focus was on anxiety. The premise of this was that a child’s early perception of self is important and stems from a child’s relationships with their parents o Basic Anxiety: caused by inadequate parenting which may cause vulnerability and helplessness o Basic Hostility: Neglect and rejection causes anger o Both basic anxiety and hostility must be overcome by attaining a sense of security. Typically, a child will use three strategies in their relationship with others to obtain this.  ▪ Moving towards people to obtain the goodwill of people who provide security. ▪ Moving against people, or fighting them to obtain the upper hand ▪ Moving away and withdrawing from people o Healthy people would use all of the above three strategies depending on the situation. ▪ A highly threatened child will use one of the strategies very rigidly and exclusively Objects Relations Theory Object refers to the representation of parents or other caregivers. The representation is based on subjective experiences during early infancy. Objects then persist into adulthood and impact one’s interactions with others Humanistic Perspective This is in direct contrast to psychoanalytic perspective o Instead of focusing on “sick” individuals, humanistic or phenomenological theorists focus on the value of individuals and take a more person-centered approach o Attempts to describe the ways in which healthy people strive toward self- realization Associated with Gestalt therapy: practitioners take a holistic view of the self o See the individual as a complete person rather than focusing on individual behaviors or drives Force Field Theory Focused on the present and put little merit in personality constraints (habits, fixed traits, etc.) and personality structures (id, ego, and superego) The field was defined as one’s current state of mind. This was simply the sum of forces (influences) on the individual at the time Forces could be divided into two groups: o Forces that assist in the attainment of goals o Forces that block the path to the attainment of goals Abraham Maslow Identified individuals that he felt had lived rich and productive lives (Albert Einstein, Beethoven, etc.) and studied them. Believed that these people were self-actualizers Identified several similar characteristics among these people: o E.g. - Non-hostile sense of humor; Originality; Creativity; Spontaneity; Need for some privacy Self-actualized people are more likely to have peak experience: o Profound and deeply moving experiences in a person’s life Personal Construct Psychology Kelly used himself as a model to study human nature. Did not consider the traditional concepts of motivation, unconscious emotion, and reinforcement  Thought of individuals as scientists: individuals who devise and test production about the behavior of significant people in their lives. o Individual constructs scheme of anticipation on what others will do Anxious person is one who is having difficulty constructing and understanding the variables in their environment o Psychotherapy is a process of insight that is used to allow the individual to acquire new constructs that allow them to successfully predict troublesome events. Client-Centered, Person-centered, or nondirective therapy Psychotherapy technique that is based upon the belief that people have the freedom to control their own behavior. This is in direct contrast to: o Psychoanalysts: believe that people are slaves to their unconscious o Behaviorists: would say that the individuals are subjects of faulty learning. This therapy helps patients reflect on problems, make choices, generate solution, take positive action, and determine their own destiny. Rogers was the man who designed this therapy and also introduced the concept of real and ideal self o Techniques for therapy were aimed at reconciling the difference between the various selves and to reduce stress-inducing incongruence Unconditional Positive regard: therapeutic technique where the therapists accepts the client completely and expresses empathy in order to promote a positive environment. The Type and Trait Perspectives Born out of dissatisfaction with the psychoanalytical theories Type Theorists: attempted to create a taxonomy of personality types Trait Theorists: describe individual personality as the sun of the person’s characteristic behaviors. Type Theorists Ancient Greeks devised personality types that is based on humors (body fluids) o Imbalance could lead to various personality disorders Somatotypes: Body types could propose personality types o Sheldon presumed that all short, stocky people were jolly and that tall people were high-strung and aloof Type theory: Type A and B o Type A: characterized by behavior that tends to be competitive and compulsive o Type B: Generally laid-back and relaxed o Type A have a higher chance of heart disease, but mortality rates are the