Psych 304 Notes PDF

Jan 13 ​ Ernst Weber: psychophysics ○​ First person to talk about the importance of muscle research ○​ Touch is composed of multiple sensations (pain, pressure, light, etc) ​ Touch and Kinesthetics ○​ Two-point threshold ​ Mapping of the tou...

Jan 13 ​ Ernst Weber: psychophysics ○​ First person to talk about the importance of muscle research ○​ Touch is composed of multiple sensations (pain, pressure, light, etc) ​ Touch and Kinesthetics ○​ Two-point threshold ​ Mapping of the touch sensitivity of the body ​ Sensitivity was most sensitive on the tongue (20 mm) and least sensitive on the back (60 mm) ​ Tongue has more touch receptors than the back ○​ Just Noticeable Distance ​ Weight discrimination experiment ​ Which weight is heavier? The constant is always the same, experiment tracked the smallest difference between two weights that could be meaningfully stated ​ They are psychological differences ​ Whether a weight difference is detected or not depends on the individual, not on the weight ○​ A pound difference remains the same, regardless of if it is noticed ​ Weber’s Law ○​ The JND is always a constant fraction relating to the stimulus ○​ Individual experiences differ systematically ​ Potential for meaningful scientific psychology ○​ This was the first quantitative law in psychology ​ First clear, mathematical statement between physical and physiological experience ​ Gustav Fechner (1801-1887) ○​ Double aspectmult (?) monist ○​ Unlike Dualists, monists believe that the physical and psychological are intertwined, and cannot be separated from each other ○​ Thought Weber’s work set the foundation for psychophysics ​ NightView (materialist) and Dayview (consciousness, non-materialist) ○​ Fechner also developed the field of experimental aesthetics ​ Aesthetics from above: evaluation of art based on an external standard ​ Aesthetics from below (Fechner’s approach): based on evaluation of other people’s reactions to art ​ Important, as it sort of bridges the gap between psychology and philosophy ​ Dr. Mises- Pen name of Gustav Fechner used to write philosophical texts  ○​ Wrote about the Dayview, and also wrote satirical texts about scientific and mathematic mainstreams ​ The JND as the unit of sensation ○​ Absolute threshold: the lowest intensity in which a stimulus can be detected ○​ Difference threshold which is the amount of stimulus magnitude that must be changed before a difference is noticed. ​ Psychophysical methods ○​ Method of Limits ○​ Method of Average Error/Adjustment ○​ Method of Constant Stimuli ​ Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914)... ​ Psychology as a natural science ○​ An approach to psychology that attempts to apply the goals/observable variables/experimentation that applies to sciences such as physics, biology, chemistry, etc ​ Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) ○​ Wundt wanted to teach experimental psychology- finally began in 1879 ​ Founded the “Institute of experimental psychology” ​ 1879 is therefore considered the starting point of psychology as a discipline ​ Considered to be one of the most influential and productive psychologists ○​ His goals of psychology ​ Understanding basic processes of the mind, and higher mental processes ​ Basic processes could be understood through experimentation, but complex processes could not (the more abstract and metaphysical) ​ “Experimental psychology can be nothing more than a part of psychology as a whole” (Wundt) ​ Mediate and Immediate Experience ○​ Two types of experience ​ Mediate experience and data are obtained through measuring objects, and are therefore not direct ​ Immediate experience and data are events in human consciousness as they occurred (psychology) ​ Voluntarism ○​ Wundt coined this term, and took a psychological approach that put emphasis on will, choice, and purpose ○​ Psychologys’ first “school”- NOT structuralism, Wundt was not a structuralist ​ Introspection ○​ … ​ Elements of Thought  ○​ Sensation ​ Occurs when a sense organ is stimulated and the impulse reaches the brain ​ Can be described in modality, intensity, and quality ○​ Feelings ​ Accomplished sensations and could be described along three dimensions (tridimensional theory of feelings) ​ Pleasantness/unpleasantness ​ Excitement/calm ​ Strain/relaxation Jan 15 ​ Mental Chronometry ○​ Franciscus Donders (1818-1889)- reaction time studies ​ Choice reaction time ​ Multiple stimuli and also multiple modes of response ○​ Wundt’s use of Donders’ methods ​ Mental chronometry- Wundt measured reaction times when various mental activities were present ○​ Wundt’s view of causality ​ Strange- he suggested physical causation is unlike psychological causality ​ Will complicates causality ​ The principle of the heterogeneity of ends means that the prediction of psychological events is ‘impossible’ ​ The principle of contracts as well- you eat something sour, then you eat something sweet, the sweet thing is perceived as more sweet, even if this is not the case ​ Also the principle toward the development of opposites ​ However, Wundt did NOT believe in free will ○​ Volitional Acts ​ Wundt was a determinist (did not believe in free will) ​ Believed that the laws of mental activity could only be deduced after the fact- a psychologist studying mental processes is therefore akin to a historian ​ Folk psychology- Wundt ○​ Verbal communication begins with a general impression and is a three stage process ​ The speaker must apperceive (the mental process by which a person makes sense of an idea by assimilating it to the body of ideas he or she already possesses) his own general impression ​ The speaker chooses words and sentence structures to express the general impression  ​ The listener, after hearing the words and sentences, must apperceive the speakers general impression ​ The Historical misinterpretation of Wundt ○​ Edward Titchener (1867-1927) ​ Student of Wundt, americanized and distorted it ○​ Structuralism ​ The goal of psychology should be understanding conscious experience ​ The what was learned through introspection ​ The how answered the question of how the elements combined ​ The why involved the neurological correlates of mental events ​ He sought only to describe mental experience or the structure of the mind ○​ Hence, the name structuralism (unrelated to structuralism in a philosophical sense) ○​ Titchner’s use of Introspection ​ Tichner’s process of introspection ​ More complicated and required more of the subject than Wundt ​ Introspection in Tichner’s laboratory required the subject to describe the basic, raw, elements; experiences which form complex cognitive experience ​ He wanted sensation, NOT perception-a stimulus error was the worst mistake that could be made in the laboratory. ○​ Mental elements ​ The elements of the mind were: sensations, images, and affections ​ The elements could be known only by their attributes ​ Attributes of sensations and images were: quality, intensity, duration, clearness, and extensity ​ Affections could only have the attributes of quality, intensity, and duration ​ Titchner challenged Wundt’s tridimensional theory of emotion ​ Law of Combination ○​ Titchner described how the elements of combine by using the law of continuity ​ The Law of Continuity: Events that are experienced together, are remembered together. ​ Context theory of meaning ○​ What gives meaning to sensation ​ Neurological correlates of mental events ○​ Believed that psychological processes provide a continuous substratum that gives psychological processes a continuity that they would not have otherwise ○​ The nervous system does not cause mental events, but we can use the nervous system to explain some of the characteristics of mental events  ​ The decline of structuralism ○​ Inevitable as people began to question the use of introspection as a reliable research technique ​ Additionally, the study of animal behavior developed more ​ The lack of interest in practical implications on the part of structuralists ​ And, the difficulty and rigidity of Titchner ​ G.E. Müller (1850-1934) ○​ Memory researcher ○​ Important findings: subjects spontaneously organize materials to be remembered in meaningful patterns ○​ Müller also became a leading psychophysicist after Fechner died. ​ Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) ○​ Unique approach to learning and memory- studied these phenomena at the time, not after the fact ○​ “Psychology has a long past but a short history” ​ Nonsense Material / Nonsense syllables ​ He would get groups of people to memorize sets of these syllables ​ Ebbinghaus did many studies on himself ​ He looked at the number of exposures that it took to learn the material- then would leave the material for a bit- then come back and study how long it took to ‘relearn’ the material ​ Recorded that meaningful syllables are easier for us to remember than meaningless syllables ​ Ernst Mach (1838-1916) ○​ Proposed positivism- sensation as the core of all science ​ The only thing we can know are our own perceptions, the physical world is closed off to us. ​ Hans Vaihinger (1852-1933) ○​ Proposed that societal living requires that we give meaning to our sensations (we can only be sure of our sensations) but we have to invent terms, concepts, and theories, and act ‘as if’ they were true. Jan 17 ​ Early German psychology ○​ Within 10-15 years of Wundt starting his lab, many other German universities followed ​ Franz Brentano (1838-1917) ○​ Taught Sigmund Freud ○​ Called his approach “act psychology” ​ The important part of the mind was not what is was made of, but what it did  ​ Studies should emphasize mental processes ○​ Mental processes are aimed at performing a function ​ All mental acts incorporate something outside of itself (which he called intentionality) ​ Intentionality is NOT intention- it is the quality of things to intend to refer to something ​ Seeing is the intention to refer to an object ​ He employed phenomenological introspection- introspective analysis of intact, meaningful experiences ​ Brentano wanted subjects to report on their intact experiences- constrained, present, limited, etc ​ Carl Strumpf (1848-1936) ○​ Worked at the Berlin University ​ Like Brentano, he focused on the phenomenological ​ (Study of mental phenomena) ○​ Influenced Gestalt psychology- he was one of the three ‘founders’ of Gestalt psychology ​ Investigated the ‘Clever Hans’ phenomena ​ Ultimately, the horse (Hans) was responding to unconscious cues that the trainer gave him ​ Christian von Ehrenfels ○​ Student of Brentano ○​ Influenced by mAch ○​ Proposed the idea of ‘form quality’- which had an impact of Gestalt psychology ​ Edmund Husserl (1859-1938) ○​ Student of Wundt, studied with Brentano ​ Two types of introspection ​ One focus on the intentionality piloted by Brentano ​ The second focuses on the subjective experience of the processes a person experiences ○​ Focuses on the essence of mental processes. He referred to this as pure phenomenology ○​ Ie. not what it is LIKE to see, but what it IS to see- an essence of mental processes themselves ​ Husserl’s Phenomenology ○​ His goal was to create a taxonomy of the mind ​ Describes the mental essences by which humans experience themselves ​ He sought to examine meanings and essence, not mental element, via introspection ​ Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911)  ○​ Sought to challenge the dominance of the natural scientific approach ​ Henri Bergson (1859-1941) ○​ Challenged the natural sciences as well, but much more controversially, with an approach concerning time, motion, and change ​ More of a philosophical offshoot ​ Oswald Külpe (1862-1915) ○​ Imageless thought ​ Proposed that some thoughts could be imageless and also that higher mental processes could be studied experimentally (in contrast to Wundt) ​ Proposed systematic experimental introspection- asked test subjects to solve problems/games/etc, and report on their mental experiences as they were experiencing them ​ Used this to “prove” imageless thought ​ This controversy continued for many years ○​ Mental set​ ​ The most influential work that came out of the Würzberg school ​ Mental set is a determining tendency, which causes the person to behave in certain ways, completely unaware that they are doing so ​ The mental set can be induced by instruction or by simply the person’s past experiences ​ Other findings of the Würzberg school Jan 20 Topic 2: Naturalism and American Psychology ​ Evolutionary theory before Darwin ○​ The idea that both the earth and living organisms change in some systematic way over time goes back to the ancient romans/greeks ​ Jean Baptist Lamarck (1744-1829) ○​ The theory of inheritance of acquired characteristics stated that environmental changes during the lifetime of the organism resulted in structural changes in plants and animals ​ These changes would be passed to offspring, subsequently increasing future generations’ chances of survival ​ Herber Spencer (1820-1903) ○​ Spencer applied his view of evolution to everything in the universe, including the human mind and societies ​ Through evolution, human differentiation occurs and systems become increasingly complex and move toward perfection ​ Applied evolutionary theory to selection of behaviour in what was called the Spencer-Bain principle  ​ Proposed that the probability of a behaviour occurring in the future is a function of whether it is followed by a pleasurable event or a painful event ​ This has become a key component of Thorndike’s connectionism and Skinner’s operant behaviour ○​ Law of effect** ​ Went on to propose that these tendencies for various behavioural responses could be passed onto offspring. ​ Social Darwinism (Spencer came up with this) ○​ Applied the notion of survival of the fittest to societies and entities within societies. This is the concept of social Darwinism ​ Societies and entities within societies, for example, businesses and companies evolve and those who are ‘more perfected’ survive and those which do not, do not survive ​ Compatible with the individualistic and capitalistic philosophy in the US at this time in history. Social Darwinism was accepted wholeheartedly ​ Charles Darwin (1809-1882) ○​ The journey of the Beagle ​ Multi-year ship voyage on the Beagle ​ Darwin was hired as a naturalist/scientist for a five year expedition ○​ Inspired by Thomas Maithus’s “An Essay on The Principles of Population” ​ Essay proposed that food supply and population size were kept in balance by events such as war,starvation, and disease ​ AKA, natural events can/do select who is the fittest to survive ​ Developed a theory of evolution, and then kept it to himself for 20 years ​ Only was moved to published his findings after encouragement from his friends after another scientist came to a similar conclusion’ ○​ Darwin’s Theory of Evolution ​ Natural struggle for survival ​ Within a species there is variability, which produces differences in characteristics ​ Struggle for survival leads to survival of the fittest- resulting in natural selection ​ Evolution results from natural selection.. ​ Evolution and the age of the Earth ○​ Darwin had major conflicts with the church ​ Mostly because of his estimate of the age of the earth ​ Human Evolution ○​ Evolutions role is psychology  ​ Darwin argues that human emotions remain from animal emotions that were once necessary for survival (ie. bearing teeth when angry) ​ Darwin claims that emotions are relatively the same across cultures, but Social Psychologists would disagree ​ These comparisons launched modern comparative psychology ​ Darwin’s lasting Influence ○​ His theory was revolutionary ○​ Still has bearing in both modern psychology, philosophy, and science ○​ Challenged the traditional view of human nature and our role in the universe ○​ Also had a role in the development of functionalism and subsequently, behaviourism. Evolutionary psychology has also used Darwin’s definitions to account for human and social behaviours ​ Sir Francis Galton (1822-1911) ○​ Darwin’s cousin ​ Had an interest in studying the inheritance of human abilities and differences ​ Invented the weather map ​ Was the first to suggest that fingerprints could/should be used for identification ○​ The measurement of intelligence ​ Galton believed that intelligence was inherited ​ Therefore, education would not influence intelligence- interesting ​ This set the foundation for eugenics ​ Eugenics ○​ Galton’s conclusion created the idea of selective breeding ○​ If intelligence is inherited - could we not increase the general intelligence of humans by encouraging more intelligent humans to mate, and less intelligent humans not to mate ​ We do participate naturally in eugenics, but the difference is the government should not have an influence on who reproduces by who ​ Natural-nurture Controversy ○​ Darwin was considered a ‘nativist’ ​ Galton revised his position: He decided that the potential for high intelligence was inherited, but it must be nurtured by a proper environment ​ Popularized research on twins Jan 22 ​ Mental Imagery ○​ Galton was one of the first (if not the first) to study mental imagery ​ Anthropometry  ○​ Developed in response to his desire to measure the individual differences among humans ○​ Collected data on more than 9000 humans ○​ Believed sensory acuity was related to intelligence and could therefore be used as a means to measure intelligence ​ Correlation ○​ Developed data analytic techniques ​ Collected vast amounts of data and needed a way to analyze it ​ Initially looked at the data using scatter plots to observe the correlation between variables ​ Later, Karl Pearson developed the (famous) correlation coefficient ○​ He was a big fan of eugenics ○​ With this data, he observed a regression towards the mean ​ Also introduced the median (mean is too influenced by outliers) ​ Galton's Contributions to Psychology ○​ Study of the nature-nurture question ○​ Use of questionnaires in research ○​ Use of word association tests ○​ The conduction of twin studies ○​ Study of imagery ○​ The development or correlation techniques ​ He was more concerned with the study of the difference of individuals (Ideographic) ​ Others were more concerned with the study of the population in general (Nomothetic) ​ James McKeen Cattel (1860-1944) ○​ Developed early Galtonian-type tests in the United States ○​ First to use the term ‘mental test’ ○​ Correlational analysis indicated little intercorrelation among the tests and little correlation between the tests and succeeding in college ○​ With these negative findings, the interests in mental testing faded ​ Also, was the first to use undergraduate students as ‘lab rats’ for his ‘mental tests’ ​ Alfred Binet (1857-1911) ○​ Very nuanced understanding of intelligence ​ He wanted to study mental capacities, he wasn’t concerned to much with (Z.B, sensory acuity) ​ Used his two young daughters to study mental development ​ Similar to what Piaget would later do ​ Individual Psychology ○​ Interested in what makes people different, not their similarities ​ For Binet, the important variables on which people differ are complex, higher-order processes that vary according to age ​ His study of these differences was called individual psychology ​ 1905 Binet-Simon Scale of Intelligence ○​ Developed as a valid means to distinguish between normal children and children with mental deficiencies ​ The scale was revised multiple times ​ Binet believed that intelligence was not a single ability (as Galton thought) but it was an accumulation of multiple abilities ​ Stern and the Intelligence Quotient (IQ) ○​ Stern introduced the concept of the mental age ​ Binet’s legacy ○​ Used extreme caution when interpreting intelligence scores ○​ Believed mental orthopedics could prepare disadvantaged children for school ​ Charles Spearman (1863-1945) ○​ Student of Wundt and Korpe? ○​ Performed an experiment of children in a village- found that sensory acuity correlated with ‘intelligence in school’ ​ Used factor analysis to propose a 2 factor theory of intelligence involving a specific factor and a general factor ○​ This conclusion was important for 2 reasons ​ Emphasized the unitary nature of intelligence in contrast to Binet;s emphasis on diversity ​ Was a pioneer in the area of statistics that are used by psychologists ​ Spearman’s Legacy ○​ The two factor theory ! ​ Sir Cyril Burt (1883-1971) ○​ His ‘research findings’ caused a scandal in the area of heritability of intelligence ○​ He was accused of fabricating his data, although his conclusions have been confirmed by others such as Cattell ​ There have be accusations the Burt largely published fabricated data, but regardless of the truth- his results were later confirmed by other researchers ​ Raymond Cattel was a great supporter of Burt ○​ Made a distinction between fluid (real time) and crystallized (pre-acquired skills and knowledge) intelligence  ○​ Some say the fluid intelligence decreases with age, and crystallized intelligence increases with age up to a point ○​ Also a supporter of the Nazis, ew. ​ Henry Goddard (1866-1957) ○​ Translated the Binet-Simon scale in to English ○​ Study of the “Kallikak” Family ​ Studied the relationship between family background and intelligence. As a result of the research (which was questionable), Goddard and several leading scientists urged that those with mental deficiencies be sterilized and/or segregated from society ​ States actually passes sterilization laws, and enforced them in to the 1970’s ​ The Alberta eugenics board did roughly (3000?) forced sterilizations ​ This led to mental testing of immigrants, resulting in a large increase in deportation rates ​ This was obviously unfair, as most of the immigrants tested were in a new and strange place, and did not yet speak the language Jan 24 ​ Lewis Terman (1877-1956) ○​ Started by replicating Binet-Simon research (although he was under the impression it was original) ○​ Found problems with the Binet-Simon scale ​ Found that some tests were too easy for the age group, others were too difficult ​ The development resulted in an average score of 100 in children of various ages ​ Suggested that the intelligence ratio (mental age/chronological age) should be multiplied by 100 to receive the decimal- and through this created the IQ ​ Correlated student’s test performance with the teacher’s personal grading of the student, grades in school, and predicted intelligence of the child ○​ Found a connection between all these factors, but it became convoluted, as it was unclear what Terman set out to ultimately determine ○​ Terman’s Position on Inheritance ​ He concluded that intelligence was largely inherited ​ Agreed with many of Goddard’s ideas ○​ Terman’s study of Genius  ​ Conducted a longitudinal study on gifted children that continued for over 80 years ​ Primary results: Gifted children become gifted adults ​ “Genetic study of genius” *Terman was NOT a geneticist- he means ‘genetic’ in a developmental sense* ​ Found that many of these gifted children came from ‘gifted’ or at least successful adults ​ Leta Hollingworth (1886-1939) ○​ Challenged the belief that intelligence is largely inherited and that women are intellectually inferior to men ○​ Proposed improved education for gifted children ​ Dissertation: Functional periodicity- pushed back against the belief that women were at an intellectual disadvantage particularly on their periods. ○​ Also challenged a lot of assumptions about mental illness ​ She found in many classrooms, gifted children were not set up very well/supported in their learning ​ Published a book “Gifted Children”, which became a sort of handbook for educating gifted children ​ Robert M.Yerkes (1876-1956) ○​ Proposed that points be given for questions on the intelligence test and analyzed in this manner without respect to age. ○​ The Army intelligence tests ​ Army Alpha: Tested on those who did speak english ​ Army Beta: Tested on those who did not speak english ​ Found that over half of test subjects were found to be below the level that they should have been at ​ Of course, this decrease in national intelligence was blamed on immigration ​ Movements were made to discriminate against those with ‘low intelligence’ (ie. barring them from voting, reproducing) ○​ Beyond Dispute*** (look back on this) ​ Modern Testing ○​ Psychometrics ​ Quinn McNemar ​ Anne Anastasi ​ Focused on environmental impacts on intelligence ​ Paul Meehl ​ One of the first to propose that intelligence was less of a reflection on people, but more of a statistical concept ​ David Wechsler (1896-1981)  ○​ Developed a new intelligence test to better understand adult intelligence ○​ WAIS (adults) and WISC (children) ​ Believed that Stanford-Binet was too rigid, and was made for children ​ He developed the Wechsler-Bellevue scale ​ What is Intelligence?’ ○​ Many objects to the ‘innateness bias’, suggesting intelligence be replace by “general scholastic intelligence” or “general educational ability” ​ Many argue that intelligence is independent of education ○​ Most people agree that intelligence: ​ Involves learning from experience (this is adaptive) ​ And involves adaptation to the environment ​ But, none of the intelligence tests we have looked at bother to measure either of these facts ​ The IQ controversy ○​ IQ is linked to eugenics and nativism ○​ Identical twins can share one or two placenta- the correlation in WAIS is 0.8-0.95 ○​ However, the correlation for WAIS block design is 0.78-0.92 for twins who share a placenta, and (something like) 0.41 for twins who do not ○​ Intelligence is NOT stable (Flynn effect) ○​ Standardized samples in major IQ tests between 1932 and 1981 tend to be higher than before ​ Humans seem to have picked up an average of 14 IQ points in the last century ​ However, humans seem to be losing IQ points in recent years ​ The Flynn Effect ○​ IQ should not be said to measure intelligence, but to measure abstract problem-solving abilities ​ Howard Gardner (1943-) ○​ Gardner argued that general views of intelligence are too specific ○​ Proposed the theory of multiple intelligences (musical intelligence, artistic (?), cont) ​ The origins of American Psychology (Canada and the United States) ○​ Early U.S psychology ​ Assumed to not exist before Titchner and William James ​ Four stages of US psychology ​ Moral and Mental Philosophy ○​ Stage 1 ​ Included topics such as ethics, divinity, philosophy, ​ Big emphasis on finding human understanding through the church  ​ John Locke influenced Samuel Johnson to explore more psychological topics (such as child development) ​ Intellectual Philosophy ○​ Stage 2 ​ Psychology became a separate discipline ​ Primarily influenced by the Scottish common sense views Jan 27 ​ William James (1842-1910) ○​ Bridge between North American and European psychology, but was popular primarily in North America ​ “Founder of functionalism”- maybe… up for debate ○​ James’ Crisis ​ Deeply depressed, major health issues in his 20’s ​ Depression partly due to materialism and the lack of free will it suggests (determinism) ​ When he accepted free will/lived as though he had free will- he felt better ​ A philosopher of pragmatism (if something does something for us, is useful to us, it is valid (true?)) ○​ “If an idea works, it is valid” ​ Religion can’t be studied experimentally, but it is still worthy of study (POV experimentalism/ radical empiricism) ○​ “All consistently reported aspects of human experience are worthy of study” ​ James’ Key Work- Principles of Psychology ○​ Two volumes, 28 chapters, and 1393 pages ○​ Lowkey killed his interest in psychology LOL ​ One of the first to do parapsychology (paranormal psychology) ​ Seen as a critic of Wundt and European psychology ​ Wundt is equally critical of James, especially of “Principles”- calling it literature and not psychology ​ Stream of consciousness ○​ Personal to the individual ○​ Continuous, cannot be divided for analysis ○​ Always changing ○​ Selective, some events are selected for further consideration while others are not ○​ Functional, purpose is to aid the individual in adapting to the environment ​ Habits and Instincts ○​ Formed as an activity is repeated ​ James had a neurophysiological explanation of habit formation  ​ It’s better to do things in a complete way (cold turkey) ​ Habits are not built from intention, they are built from doing ​ Force yourself to create good habits ​ If you want to be a good person, healthy person, good student, you have to act like it! ​ James’ idea of the self ○​ The ‘I’-empirical self (1st person experience) and the ‘Me’-object of knowledge/objective self (3rd person experience) ​ Material self ​ Body, Family, and all things owned ​ Social self ​ Self known by others, many different social selves ​ Spiritual self ​ State of consciousness, one’s own subjective reality ○​ The self as a knower is the awareness of one’s empirical self, James was one of the first to examine self esteem ​ Self esteem: The ratio of things attempted to things achieved ​ To increase self esteem, you should either attempt less, or achieve more! ​ Emotions ○​ James-Lange theory of emotion ​ Event (stimulus) causes a bodily reaction/behaviour, which is then experienced as an emotion ​ If you want to feel a certain way, you have to act a certain way ○​ Traditional understanding: emotions precede action ​ James says: when we see something, we ACT, then on the basis of that activity, we feel something ​ Free Will ○​ Biggest issue for James ○​ If we’re doing science, we have to consider determinism, but free will might be necessary if we are to act effectively ​ Ideo-motor theory of behaviour ​ An idea of an action precedes and causes the action ​ In most cases, ideas and actions flow immediately and automatically, producing habitual or reflexive behaviour ​ For voluntary behaviour, ideas of various behavioural possibilities are retained from previous experiences ​ Their recollection and a selection (by mental effort) of a behavior is a prerequisite to voluntary behaviour ​ Pragmatism  ○​ Pragmatism is the cornerstone of functionalism ​ Behaviours, thoughts, or beliefs must be judged by their consequences ​ If it works for the individual, then it is appropriate ​ Truth must be judged by its effectiveness in the situation ​ What works is true for that circumstance ​ James’ Contributions to Psychology ○​ One of the first to develop a psychology rooted in evolutionary principle ​ Charles S. Peirce (1839-1914) ○​ An influential pragmatist like James ○​ Stressed the logical rather than the psychological consequences of ideas ​ His key belief: the mind has an organizational structure that already exists when we are born ​ Less influential in the short term, but became more influential in the long run ​ Hugo Münsterberg (1863-1916) ○​ Disagreed with James on many points regarding behaviour and consciousness ​ Stated that behaviour causes ideas rather than ideas cause behaviour as James had stated ​ Let's turn this shit around! ○​ Founder of applied psychology (NOT the first clinical psychologist) ​ Applied Psychology ○​ Clinical psychology ​ Most common approach was simply telling his patients that they would get better ○​ Reciprocal antagonism ​ Tried to strengthen thoughts that were opposite to the thoughts of the patient ○​ Forensic psychology ​ Münsterberg was the first to apply psychological principles to legal matters ​ Suggested that harsh interrogation tactics may result in false confessions ​ Also suggested that eyewitness testimony was inaccurate do to the subjective nature of individual perception\ ​ Developed the lie detector test ○​ Industrial psychology ​ Wrote two works that detailed how to deal with employees and how to select employees Jan 29 ​ Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930) ○​ Attended seminars with James, but worked primarily with Münsterberg  ○​ Did her own research in Münsterbergs labs about memory/short term memory ​ Paired association technique of memory ○​ Passed her Ph.D exam, but was not able to receive her degree (because she was a woman) ​ However, she was the first female president of the APA in 1895. ○​ Developed a paired-associate technique to study the influence of frequency, recency, and vividness on memory ○​ Developed self-psychology (nature of the self, what is the self) ​ She believed much of experimental psychology was too impersonal ​ This was her major contribution ​ Set the stage for personality psychology ​ G. Stanley Hall (1846-1924) ○​ Organized the first psychology laboratory in the US ○​ Worked with Wundt ○​ Founded the first psychology journal, called the American Journal of Psychology (1887) while at John Hopkins ​ Had a research lab, but lacked experimentation ○​ Taught with Cattel and Dewey about Functionalism ○​ First president of the American Psychological Association ​ Developed the framework for APA citation style ○​ Became the President of Clark University (1888) ​ Developmental Psycholgy ○​ Repapitulation theory of development ​ The evolution of a person in their lifetime, mirrors the evolutionary journey of the human race ​ Hall’s views on developmental psychology were heavily influenced by this idea ​ Hall’s work on this area helped to stimulate educational psychology and start the child development movement in the US ​ Hall’s Magnum Opus ○​ Adolescence in Psychology and its relations to Physiology, anthropology, sociology, sex, crime, religion ​ Mostly focused on the evil of masterbation lol. ○​ Hall opposed Coeducation, as he believed it caused problems with sexuality down the line ​ Also, he believed that education was sex specific (ie, women had to be educated for motherhood) ​ Adolescence was a good time to study the human developmental makeup ​ Also believe adolescence was the best period of conversion  ​ Was not really talking about Christianity, but Hall believed people at this stage must convert their egotistical ways, and turn themselves outward in to the world ​ Hall’s legacy ○​ In 1908, Hall invited prominent European psychologists to Clark for it’s 20th anniversary ○​ He invited Wundt, Freud, and Jung ○​ Freud’s vist helped further the understanding of psychoanalysis through the world ​ Francis Cecil Sumner (1895-1954) ○​ Last graduate student of Hall, and first Afican American to receive a PhD in psychology ○​ Argued for segregation, but many believe he was just blending in/had other motived ​ Kenneth Clark (1914-2005) ○​ Trained with Sumner ○​ Was HUGE in desegregation ​ He and his wife studied the developmental effects of prejudice, discrimination, and segregation on children ​ Super instrumental in desegregating schools (ended the legal basis for segregation) ​ Edward A. Pace (1861-1938) ○​ Advocated for the education of women in postsecondary institutions ​ Founded Trinity College ○​ Advocated for applied psychology and clinical psychology ​ Functional Psychology (Functionalism) ​ John Dewey ○​ Wrote “The Reflex Are Concept in Psychology” ​ Dewey- you cannot divide behaviour up and study the parts- the parts of a reflex have to be understood as a coordinated system that is Goal Directed ○​ So, how can we understand the reflex? ​ Reflexs help the organism adapt to the environment, and essentially survive ​ Reflexs are most likely indicating something you should not do ​ Behaviour must be connected to its function- which is almost always to keep the organism alive ​ James Angell (1869-1949) ○​ Presented the three major points of Functionalism ○​ Functional psychology is interest in mental operations, not concious elements ○​ Mental processes mediate between the needs of the organism and the enviournment. Mental functions help the organism survive  ○​ Mind and body cannot be separated, they act as a unit in an organism’s struggle for survival ​ Henry Carr (1873-1954) ○​ Carr proposed the adaptive act, which has three components ​ A motive that acts a stimulus for behavior ​ An environmental setting the organism is in ​ A response that satisfies the motive ​ James McKeen Cattel (1860-1944) ○​ Proposed that psychology should be applying its methods in all human activity, because that is what humans do ○​ Purchased Science and founded The psychological review ​ In 1921, helped found the psychological corporation ​ Robert Woodworth (1869-1962) ○​ Interested in the what/why of human behavior, especially motivation ​ He called this “Dynamic psychology” ○​ Formulated the symbols S-O-R to include the organism/the organisms motivations ○​ Wrote Experimental Psychology- and this remained the central text in experimental psychology for the next 20 years ​ He couldn’t really decide what his main focus was