Cognitive Notes for Exam 1 PDF

Overview of the History of Cognitive Psychology Chapter 1: Introduction to Cognitive Psychology Ch. 1 Topics -​ Definition of cognitive psychology and the study of the “mind” -​ 1800’s - early 1900’s: Early attempts to study the mind -​ Approaches used by Fechner and Weber (psychoph...

Overview of the History of Cognitive Psychology Chapter 1: Introduction to Cognitive Psychology Ch. 1 Topics -​ Definition of cognitive psychology and the study of the “mind” -​ 1800’s - early 1900’s: Early attempts to study the mind -​ Approaches used by Fechner and Weber (psychophysics), -​ Wundt (structuralism and introspection), -​ Donders (simple and choice RTs), -​ Ebbinghaus (forgetting and savings curves), and -​ James (psychology text and course) -​ Early to mid-1900’s: Introduction of behaviorism with focus on observable and verifiable behavior -​ Pavlov (classical conditioning), then -​ Watson and Skinner (instrumental learning or operant conditioning): then -​ later shift in focus by Tolman (cognitive maps) and Thorndike (trial and error learning) to link behavior to (unseen) goals -​ 1950s and 1960s: Start of field of Cognitive Psychology -​ Events such as introduction of computer that leads to the “cognitive revolution” and -​ Leads to the study of human information processing (e.g., using flow diagrams) -​ 1970’s to the present: Contemporary cognitive psychology -​ The field gradually expands to include more focus areas -​ Develops new methods and technologies including EEG and brain imaging (e.g., PET and fMRI) Section 1.1 Cognitive Psychology: Studying the Mind -​ Cognitive psychology -​ The study of the mental processes that allow us to function; it is, in many ways, the study of the mind -​ Cognitive psychology: study of “the workings of the mind” -​ The branch of psychology concerned with the scientific study of the mind -​ Cognitive processes include: -​ Sensory perception and organization -​ Attention and learning -​ Recognizing and recalling -​ Creating and receiving communications -​ Reasoning and problem solving -​ Making judgments and decisions -​ Early efforts to study for the workings of the mind: Setting the Stage for Cognitive Psychology -​ Fechner (1854; Germany) begins theorizing about how we can measure what goes on in the mind (psychophysics) -​ Broca (1861; Paris) studies brain-damaged patients and links specific parts of brain with specific (dys)functions (Broca’s area)  -​ Donders (1868; the Netherlands) starts measuring how fast people react (reaction times) -​ Wundt (1879; Germany) sets up the first psychology lab (and course) to learn about the structure of human experience (structuralism) -​ Ebbinghaus (1885; Germany) begins studying memory by quizzing himself repeatedly over time with nonsense syllables -​ William James (1875; U.S.) taught the first U.S. psychology course at Harvard and in 1890 James the first synthesis and summary of psychology, Principles of Psychology -​ Fechner's Experimental Apparatus -​ Gustav Fechner (1830’s-60’s physicist): studied how physical differences are experienced psychologically: Psychophysics -​ He and Ernst Weber (1830’s-60’s; physician) learned that experience does not always match objective differences. We are reference dependent: our ability to perceive differences depends on the starting point -​ This mathematical relationship provided an early demonstration of a way to measure an aspect of the “workings” of the mind -​ Broca: Linking Mind to the Brain -​ Paul Broca (1840’s-60’s; French physician): Studied brain-damaged patients; linked specific part of brain with specific dysfunction -​ Showed mind and brain are closely linked; localization of ability -​ Patients who were unable to speak but could understand were often found to have damage to the back of the frontal lobe on the left side → Broca’s aphasia -​ Utrecht University (Netherlands): Donders -​ Franciscus Donders (1840’s-70’s; Dutch ophthalmologist): One of several researchers to systematically study reaction times as a window into cognitive processing: mental chronometry -​ Current-day study of reaction time: -​ Simple RT: Press single button as soon as stimulus is seen -​ Choice RT: Press one of two buttons after choosing which answer is correct -​ Donder’s method for inferring decision time -​ Choice RT – Simple RT = time to make a decision -​ Choice RT = 1/10th sec. Longer than Simple RT -​ Therefore: 1/10th second to make decision -​ Early demonstration that even though mental responses cannot be measured directly, they can sometimes be inferred from the participant’s behavior -​ Windt: First Exptl. Psychology Lab -​ Wilhelm Wundt (1840’s-70’s; physiologist): Established psychology as a field of scientific study and was the first person to call himself a psychologist – one who studies processes of the mind -​ Wilhelm Wundt: Father of (Experimental) Psychology  -​ Structuralism: theory that percepts are made up of elementary units called sensations; -​ Developed introspection: highly controlled method to describe these sensations -​ Introspection Question: What is the associational sequence of mental imageries -​ Example 1: -​ Stimulus: Spoken word: palm tree (Palme) -​ Association: “Reminiscent of a tropical landscape, originates from a picture” -​ Example 2: -​ Stimulus: Touch impression of a hair pin -​ Association: “First came the touch impression, joined later by the touch and imagery idea (Tast- und Gesichtsvorsetllung) of a bent wire. The visual image gradually became stronger and the touch idea disappeared very quickly. Finally the idea had changed from a wire to a hair pin” -​ Ebbinghaus: Memory and Forgetting -​ Hermann Ebbinghaus (1880’s to 1910’s; psychologist) studied his own memory by studying lists of nonsense syllables aloud to determine number of repetitions necessary to repeat the list without errors -​ After taking breaks, he relearned the list -​ Conclusions: -​ Short-break intervals = fewer repetitions necessary to relearn list -​ Learning, Savings, and Forgetting Curves → learned many different lists at many different retention intervals -​ Ebbinghaus: Forgetting Curve Example -​ Forgetting curves give us a sense of how quick;y and how much we are likely to forget, and also the value of repeated learning because forgetting is less likely to occur the more material is re-studied -​ Ebbinghaus: Time Savings from Repeated Study -​ (Time) Savings = (original time to learn list) - (Time to relearn list after delay) -​ Savings curve shows savings as a function of retention interval -​ Ebbinghaus: Serial Position Effect -​ Serial position effect: items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list are easier to recall than words in the middle (through recency effects tend to wear off it you wait very long to recall the list) -​ Ebbinghaus Illusion: Perceptual principle -​ Ebbinghaus also showed that perception is context (or reference) dependent. The size of the central circle looks different depending on the surroundings – but it is the same! -​ James: First in U.S. Psychology  -​ William James (1970’s-90’s) taught the first psychology course in the U.S. at Harvard University -​ Observations based on the functions of his own mind, not experiments → Functionalism -​ Functionalism: the study of how mental processes enable people to adapt to their environments → adaptive significance -​ Considered many topics in cognition, including thinking, consciousness, attention, memory, perception, imagination, and reasoning -​ Wrote the first treatise on the science of psychology Section 1.2 Abandoning the Study of the Mind -​ Behaviorism: The Search for Objective Measurement -​ Behaviorism: an approach that advocates that psychologists restrict themselves to the scientific study of objectively observable behavior -​ Necessary to ensure Experimental Psychology maintains the same standards as other physical sciences -​ Subjective reports (e.g., introspections) are too unreliable and unverifiable -​ Pavlov, Watson and the Emergence of Behaviorism -​ Ivan Pavlov (1890’s-1920’s): studied the physiology of digestion and founded classical conditioning (stimulus-response pairings) -​ John Watson (1920’s-1940’s): goal to predict and control behavior through the study of observable behavior -​ Pavolv’s Discovery: Classical conditioning -​ After several pairings of neutral or unrelated stimulus (e.g., the ring of a bell) with stimulus that naturally creates a response (e.g., food naturally produces salivating), the neutral stimulus by itself comes to create the physiological response (e.g., ringing the bell causes salivating) -​ Learning often involved creation of a “conditioned” response -​ Watson: Father of Behaviorism​ -​ John Watson (inspired by Pavolv) noted two problems with analytic introspection method: -​ Extremely variable results per person -​ Results difficult to verify due to focus on invisible inner mental processes -​ Proposed a new approach called behaviorism -​ Eliminate the mind as a topic of study -​ Instead, study directly observable behavior -​ Published first article to name and describe paradigm of behaviorism -​ Watson (and Rayner) were inspired by Pavlov’s classical conditioning in dogs -​ Studied a 9-month-old child (“Little Albert”) -​ First, showed rats and rabbits and no fear response (crying) -​ Then, showed that loud noise naturally caused crying -​ Then, repeatedly paired presentation of rat with loud noise -​ After awhile, just presented rat alone and it caused crying -​ What’s more, even a rabbit (which was never paired with the loud noise) caused crying  -​ B.F. Skinner and Operant Conditioning -​ B.F. Skinner (1930’s-70’s): -​ Developed “Skinner box” or conditioning chamber to explain learning -​ Founded operant conditioning -​ “Shape” behavior by rewards or punishments -​ Rewarded behavior more likely to be repeated -​ Punished behavior less likely to be repeated -​ Reinforcement: the consequences of a behavior determine whether it will be more likely that the behavior will occur again -​ Published The Behavior of Organisms, Beyond Freedom and Dignity, Verbal Behavior, Walden II -​ Teaching machines -​ Free will? -​ Skinner proposed that reinforcement is the key to behavior: the consequences of a behavior determine whether it will be more likely that the behavior will occur again Section 1.3 The Rebirth of the Study of the Mind -​ Cognitive Psychology: Putting the psyche back in psychology -​ Strong objections to the idea that we are nothing but stimulus-response machines became increasingly common -​ Also, objection to the idea that we start as a tabula rasa (or blank slate) that only reinforcement can affect -​ More and more psychologists began to reject the idea that we can not study the mind -​ Cognition = mental processes involved in acquiring and using knowledge -​ The Re-emergence of the Mind in Psychology -​ Edward Tolman (1930’s-50’s) behaviorist who trained rats to find food when started from one arm in a four-armed maze -​ When a rat was started in a different arm of the maze, it still went right to the specific arm where it previously found food (even though it had to turn in a different direction) -​ Tolman argued that this was evidence that the rat had created a cognitive map: a representation of the maze in its mind -​ The cognitive map helped the rat navigate to a specific arm despite starting the maze from a different spot -​ Rejected behaviorist perspective for the rat’s actions (which should have reinforced particular turn and not a cognitive goal) -​ Familiarity trials – Starting at Arm A, get used to maze and its arms (no food) -​ Training trials – repeated trials: Start in Arm A and find food reward in Arm B -​ Test trial – single trial: Start in Arm C with food reward in Arm B  -​ Behaviorism’s Operant Conditioning (Instrumental Learning) Prediction: Rat’s first attempt should be to do the behavior that was learned (“turn right to get food”) -​ Cognitive Map Prediction: Rat will realize that they started at a different p[lace, figure out what where Arm B is, and reorient to “turn left to get food” -​ Edward Thorndike (1920’s-50’s) also hypothesized that animals engage in (self-generated) goal-directed behaviors -​ Focus on learning -​ He postulated that (cognitive) goals lead to “trial and error learning” wherein an animal tries to achieve a goal by trying any number of behaviors until they find one that leads to success (and then always immediately repeat that behavior without training) -​ Although his studies were done under the umbrella of behaviorism, his theorizing involved assumptions about thought processes in the animal -​ Considered the Father of Educational Psychology -​ Jean Piaget (1920’s-60’s; Swiss) -​ Studies of intellectual development; Knowledge: Humans create meaning by connecting their experiences to their ideas -​ Noam Chomsky (1950’s-80’s) -​ Studies of language development -​ Major contributor to “cognitive revolution” -​ Argued that parts of language structure inborn -​ Critical of B.F. Skinners position of tabula rasa (i.e., that the mind starts out as a blank state) and believed it would be impossible to learn language through only operant condition -​ Information processing approach -​ Inspired by introduction of computers in the 1960’s -​ The computer showed that there is more than just inputs and outputs – there is internal processing – which you can learn about by changing inputs and seeing how it affects outputs -​ Application of scientific methods to studying internal mental events -​ Thinking of the Steps Ongoing in the Mind: Donald Broadbent Introduces Flow Diagrams to Describe the Role of Attention in Filtering Information -​ A) Input → input processor → memory unity → arithmetic unit → output -​ B) Input → Filter → Detector → To memory -​ A stepwise view of a series of information processing steps was appealing to many who were eager to study the mind -​ Introduction of the Digital Computer: The Mind as an Information Processor -​ Shift from behaviorist’s stimulus-response relationships to an approach that attempts to explain behavior in terms of the mind -​ Information-processing approach -​ Way to study the mind based on insights associated with the digital computer  -​ States that operation of the mind occurs in stages -​ The Cognitive Revolution -​ Ulric Neisser coins the term “Cognitive Psychology” in his 1967 book officially marking the Cognitive Revolution -​ (Cognitive Revolution is an example of Thomas Kuhn’s (1963) Paradigm Shift as Cognitive Psych then dominates) Section 1.4 The Evolution of Cognitive Psychology -​ Memory: A higher mental process -​ Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968) developed a three-stage model of memory: -​ Sensory memory (less than 1 second) -​ Short-term memory (a few seconds, limited capacity) -​ Long-term memory (long duration, high capacity) -​ Episodic: life events -​ Sematic: Facts -​ Procedural: Physical actions -​ Neuroscience Enters the Study of Cognition -​ Neuropsychology studies behavior of people with brain damage and people without brain damage engaging in various tasks (since 1800’s) -​ Electrophysiology studies electrical responses of the nervous system including brain neurons (mid 1900’s) -​ Brain imaging -​ Positron emission tomography (PET; late 1970s) -​ Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI; early 1990’s) -​ Both technologies show which brain areas are active during specific episodes of cognition Chapter 2: Cognitive Neuroscience Section 2.1 -​ Neurons, the Brain, and Cognition -​ The basic structure and function of the brain -​ Levels of Analysis: -​ Behavior bs physiology; -​ Systems vs components -​ Early views of neuron processing: -​ Camillo Golgi: (now disproven) nerve net model -​ Santiago Ramon y Cajal: neuron doctrine of brain organization -​ How Neurons communicate -​ Neurons as the building blocks of the brain (dendrites, axons, synapses) -​ Neural pathways and communication -​ Rate of neural firing vs intensity of stimulation vs magnitude of sensory experience -​ Evidence of hierarchical brain processing -​ E.g., in vision (from edge orientation to face recognition)  -​ Types of encoding across neurons: -​ Specificity, population, and sparse coding -​ Evidence for localization of brain function: -​ Neuropsychology, neuron recordings, brain imaging -​ Evidence for distributed functional networks for different stages or types of cognition -​ E.g., default mode network -​ But first … Why neuroscience? -​ Everything psychological is simultaneously physiological and psychological -​ Different levels of analysis -​ These systems interact - brain activity, thoughts, behaviors -​ Levels and types of analysis -​ Neurons -​ Nerves (bundles of neurons) -​ Brain structures -​ Group of brain structures -​ Chemical processes -​ Brain activity -​ Self-report -​ Behavior -​ The Brain -​ Part of the central nervous system (CNS) -​ Brain facts: -​ Weights 3-4 pounds (in adult) -​ Floats in cerebrospinal fluid -​ Contains 100-200 billion neurons Section 2.2 Neurons: Basic Principles -​ The Basic Structure of a Neuron -​ Neurons: cells specialized to create, receive, and transmit information in the nervous system -​ Each neuron has a cell body (soma), an axon, and dendrites -​ Cell body (soma): contains mechanisms to keep cell alive -​ Dendrites: multiple branches which receive information from other neurons -​ Axon: tube filled with fluid that transmits electrical signal (then chem) to other neurons -​ Early Theories of Nerve Processes -​ Camillo Golgi (late 1800’s +) -​ Created staining technique -​ Allowed first clear view of a brain neuron -​ “Nerve net” theory that -​ Each neuron fiber flows in both directions -​ Neurons touch and then fuse, becoming directly connected to each other creating “nets” -​ Allows constant flow of communication like roads  -​ Santiago Ramon y Cajal (late 1800’s - early 1900’s) -​ Used Golgi’s staining technique -​ Could not find any evidence of axons and dendrites fusing -​ Developed Neuron Doctrine: individual nerve cells (neurons) transmit signals and are not continuously linked with other cells; each neuron operates as an independent unit, with one way traffic -​ Brain (and other) Neurons come in many shapes and sizes, but have the same basic structure that allow them to communicate -​ How do Neurons Communicate? -​ Within a neuron, signals are sent electrically (action potential or neural impulse) -​ Between neurons, signals are sent chemically (neurotransmitters) -​ Neuron Communications: Action Potentials -​ Neurons send messages through electrical activation called action potentials -​ These action potentials are always the same size or strength -​ An action potential is all-or-none; the cell is either activated or not -​ Stronger stimulation causes faster (not stronger) firing – an action potential is always the same strength -​ The rate of firing reflects the strength of the stimulus -​ Low-intensity stimulus (a): slow firing -​ High-intensity stimulus ( c ): fast firing -​ Signal Transmission from one Neuron to the Next -​ Synapse: space between axon of one neuron and dendrite or cell body of another -​ When action potential reaches the end of the axon, synaptic vesicles open and release chemical neurotransmitters -​ Neurotransmitters: chemicals that affect the electrical signal of the receiving neuron -​ Neurotransmitters cross the synapse and bind with the receiving dendrites – if there is enough chemical activation, a new action potential is generated in the next neuron -​ Within a neuron, signals are sent electrically (action potential or neural impulse) -​ Between neurons, signals are sent chemically (neurotransmitters) Section 2.3 Representation by neural Firing: Hierarchical Processing and Types of Coding -​ Principles of Neural Representation -​ Everything a person experiences is based on representations in the person’s nervous system -​ But how do we get from neurons firing to representations of objects and ideas? -​ Functional Areas of the Brain - Cerebral Cortex Study Aid -​ Motor area -​ Control of voluntary muscles -​ Sensory Area -​ Skin sensations (temperature, pressure, pain) -​ Frontal lobe -​ Movement  -​ Problem solving -​ Concentrating, thinking -​ Behaviour, personality, mood -​ Broca’s Area -​ Speech control -​ Temporal lobe -​ Hearing -​ Language -​ Memory -​ Brain stem -​ Consciousness -​ Breathing -​ Heart rate -​ Parietal lobe -​ Sensations -​ Language -​ Perception -​ Body awareness -​ Attention -​ Occipital lobe -​ Vision -​ Perception -​ Wernicke’s Area -​ Language comprehension -​ Cerebellum -​ Posture -​ Balance -​ Coordination of movement -​ The Limbic System of the Brain - Limbic System Study Aid -​ Subcortical structures: -​ Basal ganglia: -​ A set of subcortical structures that directs intentional; movements -​ Thalamus -​ Receives and transmits information from the senses to the cerebral cortex -​ Hippocampus -​ Critical for creating and integrating new memories -​ Amygdala -​ Plays a role in emotional processes -​ Hypothalamus -​ Regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sexual behavior -​ Pituitary gland -​ Releases hormones that direct many other glands -​ The forebrain  -​ The forebrain is the highest level of the brain and is critical for complex cognitive, emotional, sensory, and motor functions. The forebrain is divided into two parts: the cerebral cortex and the underlying subcortical structures. The cerebral cortex, the outermost layer of the brain, is divided into two hemispheres, connected by the corpus callosum -​ Feature detectors: Representing object features -​ Hubel and Wiesel (1960s) research with visual stimuli in cats -​ Feature detectors: -​ Neurons that respond best to a specific stimulus -​ Experience-dependent plasticity -​ The structure of the brain changes with experience -​ Kittens exposed to vertical-only stimuli over time could only perceive verticals in normal stimuli -​ Demonstrated that perception is determined by neurons that fire to specific qualities of a stimulus -​ Hierarchical processing -​ When we perceive different objects, we do so in a specific order that moves from lower to higher areas of the brain -​ The ascension from lower to higher areas of the brain corresponds to perceiving objects that range from lower (simple) to higher levels of complexity -​ Different hierarchies for different things with “association area (AA) cortex” to link -​ Representing Particular Stimuli -​ Specificity coding: -​ Representation of a stimulus by the firing of specifically-tuned neurons specialized to respond only to a specific stimulus -​ Sparse coding: -​ Representation of a stimulus by a pattern of firing of only a small group of neurons, with the majority of neurons remaining silent -​ Population coding: -​ Representation of a stimulus by the pattern of firing of a large number of neurons -​ Designing a representational system -​ By using combinations of which neurons are firing (as in population coding) instead of a 1:1 mapping (as in specificity encoding), more faces (or other objects) can be represented with the same units Section 2.4 Localized Representation in the Brain -​ Localization of function; studied at least 3 ways: -​ Neuropsychology: comparing functional impairments with areas of brain injury (e.g., double dissociation technique) -​ Neuron Recordings: using microelectrodes or electrodes to isolate neuron activity in certain parts of the brain based on stimuli presented -​ Brain imaging: using tools such as PET scans and fMRI to obtain pictures of brain activity given particular tasks or stimuli  -​ Double dissociation method for revealing brain functions -​ When damage to one part of the brain causes function A to be absent while function B is present… -​ and damage to another area causes function B to be absent while function A is present: -​ Double dissociationL Location 1 is different from Location 2 both in the absence of one function and the presence of another -​ This method allows us to identify functions that are controlled by different parts of the brain -​ Double dissociation: language -​ To establish a separate brain function area using double dissociation, we need to see what functions well and what functions poorly does not overlap for the two types of brain injury -​ When Broca’s Area is damaged: -​ Language production is impaired -​ Language comprehension is ok -​ What functions well and what functions poorly reverses for the two types of brain injury – showing (1) what does work is dissociated and (2) what doesn’t work is dissociated across the two different areas of damage -​ When Wernicke’s Area is damaged: -​ Language production is ok -​ Language comprehension is impaired -​ Positron Emission Tomography (PET) -​ Radioactive glucose, injected into bloodstream, tracks rate at which glucose (brain’s fuel) is being used by neurons -​ Localization Demonstrated by Brain Imaging -​ Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) -​ Measures neural activity by identifying highly oxygenated hemoglobin molecules -​ Activity recorded in voxels (3D pixels) -​ Fusiform face area (FFA in Inferior Temporal Gyrus) responds specifically to faces -​ Damage to this area causes prosopagnosia (inability to recognize faces) -​ Parahippocampal place area (PPA in medial temporal lobe by hippocampus) responds specifically to places (indoor/outdoor scenes) -​ The PPA responds selectively to buildings, rooms, and scenes, and not to other objects, even if they seem otherwise superficially similar -​ Extrastriate body area (EBA in occipito-temporal cortex) responds specifically to pictures of bodies and parts of bodies -​ The EBA responds selectively to bodies and body parts, but not to other objects, even if they seem otherwise superficially similar Section 2.5 Distributed Representation -​ Distributed representation in the brain  -​ The brain is by its nature an organ of massive, distributed, parallel processing. This makes it possible to go from simple features to percepts and concepts, as well as allowing our experience to be multidimensional -​ Although general areas of shared functioning are typically located close together in a particular area (i.e., localized function), related functions that contribute to the overall experience are processed across many different areas of the brain often at the same time -​ Localization of function may seem like a contradiction to distributed representation, but they are complementary -​ Consider: -​ Population coding within functional areas -​ Hierarchical processing across functional areas -​ Multidimensional processes across functional areas -​ 3 forms of distributed representation -​ Localized function areas typically involve high levels of population coding (distributed representation) of particular entities (e.g., concepts, faces) as this is an efficient representation design -​ The hierarchical nature of processing means many lower order contributions (e.g., feature detectors) are feeding into the higher order percept, experience or memory (and vice versa) -​ Brain processing is largely multidimensional with perceptual, semantic, evaluative, emotional, attentional and other dimensions of processing of any experience, percept, memory or idea Section 2.6 Neural Networks -​ Interconnected areas of the brain that communicate with each other -​ Can be primarily hierarchical (e.g., features to constructs), complementary (e.g., connections across hemispheres; sensorimotor connections), associational (e.g., linking different senses) -​ Connectome: structural description of the network of elements and connections forming the human brain -​ May be several neural circuits or pathways within a neural network -​ Structural and Functional Connectivity -​ Structural connectivity: -​ The brain's “wiring diagram” created by axons that connect brain areas (like a 3D road map0 -​ As unique to individuals as fingerprints -​ Measured by physical evidence of connections -​ Functional connectivity: -​ How groups of neurons within the connectome function in relation to types of cognition -​ Determined by the amount of correlated neural activity in two brain areas -​ Six common functions determined by networks of shared activation during resting-state fMRI  -​ Visual -​ Vision; visual perception -​ Somato-motor -​ Movement and touch -​ Dorsal attention -​ Attention to visual stimuli and spatial locations -​ Executive control -​ Higher-level cognitive tasks involved in working memory and directing attention during tasks -​ Salience -​ Attending to survival-relevant events in the environment -​ Default mode -​ Mind wandering, and cognitive activity related to personal life-story, social functions, and monitoring internal emotional states -​ Dynamics of cognition and default mode network -​ Dynamics of cognition: -​ The flow and activity within and across the brain’s functional networks change based on conditions -​ Change within and across networks never stops, even when we are not engaged in any activity -​ Default mode network: -​ Mode of brain function that occurs when it is a rest -​ One of the brain’s largest networks -​ Mind-wandering, social or self-related thoughts