Motivation and Emotion Psych 104 Chapter 8 PDF

Psych 104 Chapter 8 Motivation and Emotion What are Emotions? - Mental states or feelings associated with our evaluation of our experiences - Positive or negative feeling (affect) states - Pattern of cognitive, physiological and behavioural reactions. Motivation...

Psych 104 Chapter 8 Motivation and Emotion What are Emotions? - Mental states or feelings associated with our evaluation of our experiences - Positive or negative feeling (affect) states - Pattern of cognitive, physiological and behavioural reactions. Motivation and emotion - Link between motivation and emotion - React when goals are gratified, threatened or frustrated - Strong reaction to more important goals Adaptive Value of Emotions - Emotions direct attention Negative EMotions - Narrow attention — increase physiological activation Positive Emotions - Broaden thinking — exploration and skill learning, allow us to see the bigger picture Social communication - Information about internal status - Influence others behaviour towards us Features of Emotions - Emotions are responses to eliciting stimuli - Emotions result from cognitive appraisal of the stimuli - Bides respond physiologically to stimuli - Emotions include behavioral tendencies, including expressive behaviour and instrumental behaviour Eliciting Stimulus - Can be internal or external - Influence of innate biological factors - Newborn infants can respond emotionally - Adults primed to respond to evolutionary significant stimuli - Learning: Previous experiences can affect current emotional experiences. (classical conditioning) Cognitive Appraisal - Involved in all aspects - Allows for interpretation and evaluation of sensory stimuli - Influences expressions and actions - Different reactions to the same event - Effect of cultures? - Cultural similarities in appraisals for basic emotions - Cultural differences in appraisals of other emotions. Physiological Responses - Interactions between cortical and subcortical structures - Subcortical areas: Hypothalamus (release of hormones), amygdala (emotion center) and hippocampus (memory) - Destruction or stimulation can produce aggression - When the amygdala is working, we feel anger, sadness, fear, negative emotions - When the amygdala is not working, we feel love, happiness, joy, positive emotions - Cerebral cortex: prefrontal cortex = ability to regulate emotions - Dual Pathway emotion: Thalamus sends sensory input along two independent neural pathways - One pathway to amygdala, behavioural and emotional response - One to cerebral cortex for conscious interpretation - Amygdala - Can produce input before interpretation by cortex - Removal of visual cortex in rats did ot impair classically conditioned fear response - People with hippocampal damage (unable to learn a connection between CS and UCS) still acquire a fear response Hemispherical Activation - Evidence for left hemisphere activation underlying some positive emotions - Evidence for right hemisphere activation underlying some negative emotions Autonomic Responses - The idea behind polygraphs - Autonomic = automatic Expressive behaviours - Observable displays of emotion - Allows us to infer emotions of others - Expressive behaviour allow you to “read” emotion and react accordingly - Expressive behaviours can evoke sympathy. Fundamental emotional patterns - Expressions of certain emotions - similar across variety of cultures - Children blind from birth express basic emotions as sighted children do. - Evolutionary view: certain emotions are innate. Emotions can be modified by learning. Facial Expressions - Judging emotion is best with context - General agreement across cultures - Women generally more accurate Effect of Culture? - Cultural display rules: - Dictate when and how particular emotions are expressed - Innate biological factors and cultures can shape what and how we express emotions. Instrumental Behaviours - Behavior directed at achieving a goal - Emotions function as: - Calls to action - Enhance performance for simple tasks - Interfere with complex tasks - Task complexity increases - arousal for maximum performance decrease. In The Brain - Prefrontal asymmetry in activation - Greater left prefrontal activity. Associated with positive affect - Greater right prefrontal activity: associated with negative affect. Lower immune system. Discrete emotions theory - Humans experience a small number of distinct emotions even if they combine in complex way - Newborn infants smile during REM sleep - Adaptive significance of motor reactions to emotions such as disgust, fear, anger - Ex. fear: when we are afraid = we open our eyes wide - Cultural evidence: - People recognize and generate the same emotional expressions across cultures - Could be due to globalization of culture (paul ekman 1971) - Found there are a small number of primary emotions that exist across cultures - Happiness, fear, disgust, sadness, surprise, contempt and anger - New research also suggests that “pride” may also be a universal emotion - The fact that there are certain emotions that exist across most cultures doesn't mean that cultures are the same in their emotion Emotional psychology:  - Can differentiate some primary emotions physiologically - Heart rate increases with negative emotions - Digestive system slows down wit fear - Not all emotions though… happy and sad looks same in brain scans - Multiple brain regions are active in all emotions. Cognitive theories of emotion - Emotions are products of thinking - Rather than the other way around - No discrete emotions - As many emotions as there are kinds of thoughts - Theories include: James-Lange, Cannon-Bard, Somatic Marker and the Two-Factor theory James-Lange Theory - Emotions result from our interpretations of our bodily reactions of stimuli. (You are only sad because you are crying) - You will only be emotional about the stimuli you are consciously aware of. - Emotions are an interpretation of what our body is doing - Ex. My heart has increased, I am crying, I must be sad. Crying then feel Cannon-Bard Theory - An emotion-provoking event leads simultaneously to an emotional and bodily reaction. - You can cry when you're happy or when you are sad. - Emotionally arousing stimuli must be doing a physical response at the same time as cognitive appraisal. Somatic marker Theory - We use our “gut reactions” to gauge how we should react Two Factor Theory - Emotions are produced by an undifferentiated arousal (alertness, ie. physiological), with an attribution of that arousal (ie. label). - Pretty similar to Cannon-Bard, but is somehow different. Unconscious Influence on Emotion - Many emotional reactions may be generated automatically - Subliminal exposure to positive or negative cues influence mood - Mere exposure effect and liking more familiar stimuli Facial Feedback Hypothesis - You are more likely to feel emotions that corresponds to your facial features - Muscular feedback to the brain plays a key role in emotional experience. - Supporting research, but could be due to classical conditioning Intro to Motivation - Process that influences goal directed behaviour - Influences direction, persistence and vigour - Instinct theory and evolutionary psychology Instinct Theory - Based on Darwin's theory of Evolution - Instincts motivates behavior - Instinct: inherited predisposition to behave a certain way in response to certain stimuli (predictable) - Instincts are genetically based (at least in part) - Independent of learning - Based on survival of the organism - Proposed numerous instincts in humans (thousands) - Not widely accepted by humans and scientists due to the explanation of how the instinct theory works is circular Modern Psychologist Views - Psychological motives bose on evolution - Genes related to behaviours that increase chances of survival and reproduction - Also known as adaptive significance Drive Theory - centers around homeostasis. The bodies need or want to maintain baseline levels. - Internal physiological equilibrium that the body strives to maintain - A delicate balance ensures survival - Physiological disruptions to homeostasis produce drives - States of internal tensions - Motivate behavior to reduce the tension - Drive push organisms into action (when you are thirsty, you get a drink) - Applied to thirst, hunger, body temperature, weight, sleep, etc Drive theory - Less influential - people do not always behave in a way the drive theory predicts (ex, diets, horror movies, etc) Incentive and Expectancy Theory Incentive Theories - Incentive: something that motivates or encourages an organism to do something. - Inliek the “push” of drive theory,. Incentive provide a “pull” toward a goal (ex, getting a good grade winning the Lombardi trophy) - Focus on the “pull” of external stimuli, even in the absence of biological need (finish a meal, but still want dessert) - Stimuli have an incentive value - Higher value = want it more - Applied to understanding drug abuse, because they want the feeling that drug gives them. People doing heroin are not preventing withdrawal, they are trying to get the euphoric high. Incentive toi Expectancy - People often respond differently to the same incentive - Incentive theories akin to classical conditioning - Expectancy theory employ the cognitive perspective - Kind of uses both classical and operant conditioning - Incentive + cognitive = expectancy Expectancy Theory - AKA Expectancy x value theory - Goal-directed behaviors driven by: - Strength of expectation that behaviour will lead to a goal - Value that person places on goal (ie, incentive value) - Motivation = expectancy x incentive value Types of motivation - Cognitive theorists define two categories - Intrinsic motivation: performing an activity for its own sake - Extrinsic motivation: performing to obtain external reward or to avoid punishment Psychodynamic (freud) and Humanistic (Maslow) Theories Psychodynamic - Freud proposed that most of our behaviours came from unconscious impulses and psychological defenses - impulses want to be expressed - Defenses want to keep impulses ‘at bay’ - Conflict produces energy that needs to be released - Instead, funnel unto socially acceptable outputs - Strongest drives = sex and aggression - Ex. someone with strong aggressive impulses would have a career they could funnel the aggression into (trial lawyer, athlete, etc) Psychodynamic Theory now - Freud's dual instinct model was not supported, but led to other theories - Modern theories emphasize the role of unconscious motive and tensions, in addition to conscious processes - Stress motives for self-esteem and social belonging Humanistic Theory - Abraham Maslow - Other perspectives ignored the motivation of striving for personal growth - Described two categories of needs: - Deficiency needs: things concerned with physical and social survival  - Growth needs: unique to humans, push us to develop our potential - Deficiency and growth needs were arranged upon a need hierarchy - Deficiency needs are at the bottom and growth needs are at the top - Need to satisfies your basic psychological needs, you can work in the next ‘tier’ of needs - End goal = self actualization Questioning the hierarchy - Self actualization is a vague goal - Does not explain behaviours that go against the ranking of needs - Ex go hungry - Ex POW endure torture to protect comrades Self determination theory - Motivated by competence: reflects a human need to master new challenges and perfect skills - Autonomy: people can experience their actions as a result of free choice without outside interference. - Relatedness: the desire for humans to form meaningful bonds with others. *** know the theories for the final *** focus on the old white dudes as well Hunger and Weight Regulation Hunger as a motivation - Hunger “pangs” (muscular contraction) that correlate with feelings of hunger. - But not the cause - Experience hunger (and fullness) even if the nerves from stomach to brian are severed Singlas that start a meal - Pattern of increase and decrease in blood glucose levels - Decline in blood glucose levels over time - Liver converts stored nutrients into glucose - This causes the blood glucose levels to rise  - This cycle generates feelings of hunger - Ghrelin: a peptide that signals hunger - Secreted by stomach and small intestine - Leptin: is released released from fat stores, tells Ghrelin to shut up., more fat cells = more leptin - Singlas to brain to decrease appetite and increase energy - A gene (ob) normally directs fat cells to produce leptin - But mice with an ob gene mutation lack leptin - As they gain weight, their brains do not receive this “curb your appetite” singalds, and the nice overstand become obese - Daily leptin injections reduce their appetites and increase their energy expenditure, and the mice become thinner, Brain Mechanisms - Structures in the Hypothalamus play a role of regulating - Hunger - Thirst - Sexuyal arousal - Body temperature Psychological aspects of hunger - Waiting is positively reinforced by good tastes - Eating is negatively reinforced by hunger reduction - Expectations that eating will be pleasurable and will reduce hunger stimulate ending - pressure