Psychology Notes PDF

What is Psychology? The scientific study of people's thoughts, feeling and behaviors 3 branches of psychology -​ Psychoanalysis: analyzes inner experiences of the mind -​ Behavioral: analyzes principles of behavior -​ Cognitive: analyzes prescription, learning memory and reason...

What is Psychology? The scientific study of people's thoughts, feeling and behaviors 3 branches of psychology -​ Psychoanalysis: analyzes inner experiences of the mind -​ Behavioral: analyzes principles of behavior -​ Cognitive: analyzes prescription, learning memory and reasoning Delayed Gratification -​ Definition: Delayed gratification is the ability to resist the temptation of an immediate reward in order to wait for a later, more rewarding outcome. The Marshmallow Experiment -​ Conducted by: Walter Mischel, Stanford University. -​ Participants: 4 and 5 year old children. -​ Experiment: Each child was given a marshmallow and told they could eat it immediately or wait for a while and receive a second marshmallow. -​ Goal: Test if the child could delay gratification by waiting for a better reward. Findings from the Study -​ The children who were able to wait for the second marshmallow showed more success later in life. Follow-up Results (18 years later): -​ Higher SAT scores. -​ Lower levels of substance abuse. -​ Lower likelihood of obesity. -​ Better responses to stress. -​ Long-term Study: Researchers followed the children for over 40 years and found that those who could delay gratification continued to be more successful in various aspects of life. Key Takeaway: -​ The ability to delay gratification is linked to better life outcomes. Intro to psychology -​ The scientific study of behavior and mental processes -​ Focus is on the factors unique to individual, unlike anthropology and sociology, which both focus on groups of people Psychological questions include: -​ What is the mind? -​ What is its relation to the brain? -​ If the mind and the brain are not the same thing but are related, how do you study what you cannot see -​ What roles do biology (nature) and environment (nurture) play in complex human behaviors? -​ How does the mind develop and change over time? Psychology vs Psychiatry -​ Psychologists study all types of human behavior, including abnormal behavior (mental health issues). -​ Psychiatrists are medical doctors who specialize in treating mental disorders. Psychiatrist -​ Have a Medical Degree and specialized psychiatric training. -​ Can prescribe medication because they are doctors. -​ Members of the Medical Association. -​ Clinical Psychologists -​ Some psychologists get extra training to specialize in helping people with mental disorders. -​ They are trained in therapy but cannot prescribe medication. Why it’s important: -​ Psychologists and psychiatrists play different but important roles in mental health. -​ Psychiatrists can provide medical treatment like medication -​ Psychologists focus on understanding behavior and providing therapy -​ Both are necessary for a well-rounded approach to mental health care. Bipoc psychologists (black, Indigenous, and people of color) -​ Kenneth and Mamie Clark: Conducted the famous Doll Experiment, showing how racism affects children’s self-esteem. -​ Beverly Daniel Tatum: Wrote the book "Why Do All Black Kids Sit Together in the Cafeteria?" to explore racial identity and segregation in schools. -​ Reiko True: Studied why some groups have better access to healthcare than others. -​ Jennifer Eberhardt: Researches bias in policing and how people's views affect law enforcement. -​ V.S. Ramachandran: Created the mirror box to help people recover from lost limbs by tricking the brain into thinking the limb is still there. Goals of Psychology (in order) -​ Describe: Identify and explain the characteristics of behavior and mental processes. -​ Predict: Use knowledge to predict events or outcomes based on relationships between different factors. -​ Explain: Find the causes and effects behind behaviors and mental processes. -​ Change: Influence or improve behavior by producing, preventing, treating or curing certain actions or conditions. -​ These goals help psychologists understand and address human behavior effectively. Psychoanalysis Who is Freud? -​ Born: 1856, Vienna, Austria. -​ Showed brilliance from a young age and entered medical school at 17. -​ Opened a practice focused on mental disorders. -​ Died: 1938 from mouth cancer, after using morphine for pain relief. Why Study Freud? -​ Regarded as the founder of modern psychology. -​ His work greatly influenced psychiatry and is still used today. -​ His theories were expanded by others, helping us better understand human behavior. Freud's Theory of Mind -​ Freud believed people were often unaware of their motives. -​ The mind is divided into conscious and unconscious parts. Conscious vs. Unconscious -​ Conscious: Contains memories we can easily recall. -​ Unconscious: Holds memories we can't recall Unlocking the Unconscious -​ Freud used psychoanalysis and free association to explore the unconscious mind, by understanding people's motive and unlocking childhood memories -​ He theorized the unconscious has 3 parts that shape how we think, feel, and act. The 3 Parts of the Mind: -​ The unconscious part of the mind consists of the Id and the Superego -​ The conscious part of the mind consists of the ego The Id -​ Focused on instincts and basic desires (e.g., hunger, thirst). -​ Seeks pleasure and avoids pain, even if socially unacceptable. -​ Dominates in early life (e.g., crying when hungry). The Superego (opposite of the ID) -​ Represents moral conscience, teaching right from wrong. -​ Shaped by cultural values and parents, guiding our actions. -​ Parents are important in shaping the superego because they teach us morals and the value between right and wrong. -​ They often punish the negative behavior and reward the positive The Ego -​ Decision-maker; balances between the Id and Superego. -​ Follows the reality principle, making choices based on what’s socially acceptable. -​ This is the part of the mind where decisions are made; though it may be influenced by the unconscious part of our mind Example of How the Parts Work Together: -​ When hungry in a grocery store: -​ Id: Eat the chips now (no shame). -​ Superego: Wait and pay for them. -​ Ego: Decides to eat, but also pays for them. -​ As we grow, the Superego becomes stronger, and the Id becomes smaller. The Ego helps us make choices based on social norms and reality. The Id: Instincts (devil) Superego: Morality (angel) Ego: Reality (person) Blue iceberg image represents the conscious vs. unconscious mind. Above the water (visible part): -​ Represents conscious mind. -​ Includes thoughts and memories we are aware of. Below the water (larger submerged part): -​ Represents unconscious mind. -​ Holds memories, desires, and feelings we are unaware of, but influences behavior. Illustrates Freud’s theory: -​ Most of our thoughts and motives are hidden in the unconscious. -​ Only a small part of our mental life is conscious and accessible. In depth Id at the bottom: -​ The Id represents our basic needs and desires, like hunger or wanting pleasure. -​ It is often seen as the deepest and most unconscious part of the mind, acting without thinking about consequences or rules and operating without regard for social norms or moral considerations. Superego is the biggest: -​ The Superego represents our morals and the rules we learn from parents, society, and culture. -​ It’s the biggest because it helps guide us on what’s right and wrong, and as we grow, we rely on it more. -​ It is often the largest because it controls moral decisions and influences our actions more as we mature. Ego is close to the top: -​ The Ego makes decisions and helps balance what we want (the Id) with what’s right (the Superego). -​ It works mostly in the conscious and preconscious mind, helping us deal with real-world situations Preconscious: -​ The preconscious is just below the surface. -​ It contains things we’re not thinking about right now but can easily bring to mind, like a memory or a fact we can recall when needed. True or false -​ Psychology focuses on the individual rather than groups true -​ Both psychologists and psychiatrists are doctors and can prescribe medications false -​ Psychologists perform experiments to conduct their research true -​ A major goal of psychology is nơt to change or cure your patient false -​ Clinical Psychology and Psychoanalysis are the same thing true -​ The Id operates on the reality principle false -​ Freud used 'free feelings' to uncover his patients unconscious false -​ Our DNA is responsible for our Superego false -​ The Ego is driven by biological needs false -​ The Id acts like a 'referee' false -​ Choosing between going to a party (id) or studying for an exam (superego). Defense mechanisms, psychological strategies people use unconsciously to cope with stress, anxiety, or uncomfortable emotions. -​ Sublimation: Using a socially unacceptable behaviour in a positive way -​ Regression: Resorting to immature behaviour -​ Reaction Formation: Acting opposite of how you feel -​ Compensation: Using strength in a different way -​ Projection: Putting your faults on someone else -​ Displacement: Blaming an object -​ Denial: Not being able to admit to yourself a situation -​ Rationalization: Using an excuse to cope with bad behaviour -​ Daydreaming: Getting lost in thought to escape reality  -​ Identification: Altering your personality to try to 'fit in' Cognitive psychology Definition: -​ Cognitive psychology is the study and application of how the brain learns. -​ The study of how the brain processes information, learns, remembers, and applies knowledge. -​ Focuses on mental processes like thinking, memory, perception, and decision-making. Key Focus Areas: -​ How people perceive and interact with their environment. -​ How people learn and remember -​ How the brain learns and stores memories. -​ How people reason and make decisions. -​ Different parts of the brain influence thoughts, feelings, and actions. Cognitive psychology two main areas: -​ Perception -​ Memory Perception Definition: -​ The process by which the brain interprets sensory information (sight, sound, touch, etc,) to understand the world around us -​ Organizes stimuli to create a meaningful understanding of the world. Illusions: -​ False or misleading interpretations of reality. -​ Something that deceives by producing a false or misleading impression of reality Factors Influencing Perception: (four) First Impressions: -​ Shape how we perceive people and events. -​ Can strongly affect future interactions. -​ They often affect the way we think or behave in certain situations Personality: -​ Individual mental outlook affects expectations and understanding.  -​ Everyone thinks and behaves differently, so each person has his or her own unique mental set of perception -​ Our personalities contribute to our expectations in life, understanding of things, events, people and our reactions to these situations Life Experiences: -​ Teach us how to respond to people and events. -​ Teach us how to think and act towards people and events Selective Memory: -​ Choosing to remember certain things and forgetting (block out) unpleasant ones. How Perception helps in our everyday life: -​ Helps in decision-making and understanding the world. -​ Helps interpret body language -​ Helps in absorbing information. -​ Protects us by identifying threats. How Perception Can Hinder our everyday life: -​ Leads to stereotyping or the "halo effect." -​ Can create false memories. Memory Definition: -​ The ability to acquire, store, and recall knowledge and skills. Levels of Memory~ Psychologists classify memory into 3 levels: Sensory Memory: -​ Briefly holds sensory information (like sights, sounds and odor). -​ leaves a trace on the nervous system for a split second and then vanishes -​ Enables smooth perception of the world (e.g., recalling someone’s last words). Short-Term Memory (STM): -​ Hold small amounts of information for 15–20 seconds. -​ Limited to about 7 items. Long-Term Memory (LTM): -​ Items that are important to you and have meaning to you are stored in the long term memory  -​ We can retain as much information as we want for as long as we want, we just need to retrieve them properly -​ Stores meaningful information indefinitely. -​ We recall better under similar conditions to when the memory was created. LTM extra info: -​ We recall memories better in the same conditions that we store them ~ visit your old neighborhood -​ Memories are easy to access if they are recalled often (practice!) -​ overlean and rehearse material even if you think you have learned it -​ Memories are easier to recall when they are organized and related to other information -​ Use visual imagery Types of Memory: There are three other types of memory that we have that are very important to our daily survival -​ Episodic: Remembers specific past events tied to time and place. -​ Semantic: Stores general knowledge about how the world works. -​ Procedural: Ability to remember how to do everyday things, involving learned skills and behaviors. Remember how to perform tasks (e.g., riding a bike). Examples -​ Remembering your first days of school: Episodic Memory -​ Remembering how to speak a language: Semantic Memory -​ Remembering where your locker is located: Procedural Memory -​ Recalling your best friend's birthday party: Episodic Memory -​ Knowing the capital of your country: Semantic Memory -​ Remembering how to ride a bike: Procedural Memory Types of learning: Several types of learning exists but we will examine two: Associative learning and observational learning The most basic form is associative learning -​ Learning by connecting two things, like events, actions, or consequences. Two forms of associative learning: -​ Classical conditioning -​ Operant conditioning Operant conditioning: used reward and punishment to achieve a desired outcome is a learning method that employs rewards and punishments for behavior. -​ A dog gets a treat for sitting, so it learns to sit more often. -​ A student gets a sticker for finishing homework (reward), so they do homework more often. -​ A child loses screen time for misbehaving (punishment), so they stop the bad behavior. Classical conditioning: Learning by linking things together Classical conditioning is a type of unconscious or automatic learning. learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (e.g., a tone) becomes associated with a stimulus (e.g., food) that naturally produces a behaviour. -​ a dog hears a bell and knows food is coming, so it starts drooling. -​ A baby hears a lullaby (neutral sound) before being fed and learns to feel calm when the lullaby plays. -​ A cat hears the sound of a can opener (neutral sound) and knows it's time for food, so it runs to the kitchen. Ethical Guidelines;​ Participant awareness: -​ The investigator should inform participants of all features of the research that might influence their willingness to participate. Openness and Honesty: -​ There should be openness and honesty between investigators and participants. Reasons for concealment or deception should be given. Voluntary participation: -​ Participants are free to back out at any time Responsibilities: -​ The responsibilities of investigator and participants should be made clear from the beginning Protection from harm: -​ The investigator should protect participants from physical and mental discomfort, hard and danger. Respect for individual privacy: -​ Respect for individual privacy must be ensured -​ Nothing about the participants private lives or actions must be made public during the experiment Psychoanalysis: focuses on understanding the unconscious mind and defense mechanisms. Behavioral: Focuses on learned behaviors and responses. Cognitive: Focuses on mental processes like thinking and perception. Humanist: Focuses on personal growth, self-actualization, and free will. Ethics: Deals with moral principles in psychological practice. Humanist psychology Basic Idea of Humanistic Psychology -​ Humanistic psychology focuses on personal growth, self-actualization, and the belief that individuals have the freedom to make choices and achieve their full potential. -​ It emphasizes the importance of human experiences, emotions, and the inherent goodness of people. How Humanistic Psychology Developed -​ Humanistic psychology developed as a response to the deterministic views of Psychoanalysis and Behaviorism. -​ Psychoanalysis focused on unconscious drives and behaviorism focused on external behavior and conditioning. -​ Humanism, led by thinkers like Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, emphasized individual choice, free will, and personal growth. Similarities and Differences with Other Branches of Psychology Similarities: -​ Like Cognitive Psychology, humanism values the individual's subjective experience. -​ Like Psychoanalysis, humanism recognizes the importance of understanding human nature, but humanism focuses more on positive growth rather than unconscious conflict. Differences: -​ Humanistic psychology emphasizes personal growth and free will, unlike Behaviorism, which focuses on learned behavior and external stimuli. -​ Psychoanalysis focuses on unconscious conflicts, while Humanistic psychology believes people are inherently good and capable of positive change. Humanistic Psychology in Education -​ Humanistic psychology can be applied in education by encouraging self-directed learning, creativity, and personal responsibility. -​ Teachers can create a supportive environment where students feel valued, respected, and able to explore their full potential, promoting self-actualization. Humanistic Psychology in the Workplace -​ In the workplace, Humanistic psychology emphasizes employee well-being, motivation, and growth. -​ Managers can focus on creating an environment where employees feel respected and valued, encouraging creativity, autonomy, and personal development to maximize job satisfaction and productivity. Abraham Maslow and Self-Actualization -​ Developed the Hierarchy of Needs. -​ People must satisfy basic needs (food, safety, love) before reaching self-actualization. -​ Self-Actualization: Realizing one’s full potential, creativity, and personal growth. Viktor Frankl and Logotherapy -​ Created Logotherapy, a form of existential therapy. -​ Focuses on finding meaning in life as a way to cope with suffering and challenges. -​ Believes that meaning can provide strength during difficult times. Carl Rogers and Client-Centered Therapy -​ Developed Client-Centered Therapy (Person-Centered Therapy). -​ Focuses on creating a non-judgmental, empathetic environment. -​ Believes that people can achieve personal growth and self-actualization when they feel accepted and understood.