Group Formation Psychology PDF

Factors in Group Formation 1. People. 2. Situations. 3. Interpersonal Relationships. People in Group Formation -Joining with others in a group depends on individuals’ personal qualities, including traits, social motives, and gender - e.g., the artists. Ex; Mavens and connectors (Tipping Point - Glad...

Factors in Group Formation 1. People. 2. Situations. 3. Interpersonal Relationships. People in Group Formation -Joining with others in a group depends on individuals’ personal qualities, including traits, social motives, and gender - e.g., the artists. Ex; Mavens and connectors (Tipping Point - Gladwell). Tipping Point - Gladwell explains how ideas spread like epidemics and which few elements need to come together to help an idea reach the point of critical mass, where its viral effect becomes unstoppable. the success of the social epidemic relies on the involvement of few people, and that in those circumstances 80% of the work is done by 20% of the people which he referred to as the Pareto Principle Situations in Group Formation Some situations prompt people to affiliate with one another, including; ambiguous, dangerous situations, tasks and goals that can only be achieved by collaborating with others. Interpersonal Relationships in Group Formation Attraction and Affiliation groups form when individuals find they like one another (eg biker gangs). Animals in Groups Ants. School of Herring. Wildebeest. Pride of Lions. Whales. Luna. Humans. Its Smarter To Travel In Groups Safety, collaboration, protection, ex, penguins, ants, crabs. Lions in Groups Lioness lost friend but formed new connections with two others; takes on behavioural and social influence from older lions. Alot happier now that she is not lonely. One lion is a group mediator that allows hyen to join the group. Animals in Groups - Orca 6 year old orca separated from his pod when he was 2 years old near Vancouver Island. Survived for 4 years without the guidance of his pod. Need for companionship. Kate and Pippen Pippen was a baby fawn who was abandoned, Kate the Great Dane adopted her immediately and they became best friends. personality The configuration of distinctive but enduring dispositional characteristics, including traits, temperament, and values, that characterize an individual’s responses across situations. Not all experience groups the same way. Characteristics of Extraverts in Groups Are drawn to other people and groups. Tend to be happier individuals, more energetic, enthusiastic, assertive, happy, empathetic. . More likely to join groups. Introverts in Groups avoid them. Less likely to join groups. The need for energy or a different type of energy source. EQ-I and MBTI research. Introvert/Shyness Stereotype Not timid or discomfort in social settings - just different preferences. EQ-I and MBTI research - are introverts more self aware? EQ-I; may have a greater tendency to engage in introspection and self-reflection, which can contribute to higher levels of self-awareness. MBTI; While introverts are often described as reflective and more internally focused. Self-awareness is not solely determined by whether someone is an introvert or extrovert, according to EQ-I or MBTI research. Self-awareness is influenced by a wide range of factors, and individuals of any personality type can possess high or low levels of self-awareness. Influence of Reticular Formation on Introverts Helps filter sensory input. Supports their introspective and deep-thinking nature. Maintains alertness with sensitivity to internal stimuli. Influence of Reticular Formation on Extraverts Keeps them alert and engaged with the external world. They have a lower arousal threshold, needing more external stimuli. Helps them stay responsive in social situations. five-factor model (FFM, or big five theory) A conceptual model of the primary dimensions that structure individual differences in personality. The five dimensions are extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, and openness to experience. Different theorists sometimes use different labels. Extraversion: engagement and interest in social interactions, including friendliness, gregariousness, assertiveness, activity, excitement seeking, and cheerfulness. Agreeableness: cooperative orientation to others, including acceptance, frankness, compassion, congeniality, modesty, and sympathy. Conscientiousness: persistence in the pursuit of tasks, including self-confidence, orderliness, meeting of obligations, achievement striving, self-regulation, and measured responding. Neuroticism: strong emotional proclivities, including anxiety, hostility, negative affect, shyness, lack of impulse control, and reactivity to stressors. Openness to Experience: active pursuit of intellectually and aesthetically stimulating experiences, including imagination, fantasy, appreciation of art, openness to emotions and experiences, curiosity, and cognitive flexibility. Extraversion In personality trait theories, the degree to which an individual tends to seek out social contacts, including such related qualities as outgoing, enthusiastic, energetic, and assertive. Introverts are oriented primarily toward inner perceptions and judgments of concepts and ideas, whereas extraverts are oriented primarily toward social experiences. Person-Group fit Predictions of status must take into account the degree to which individuals attributes best match the qualities valued by the group to which they belong. Group-Person fit is the compatibility between an employee and the immediate workgroup. This is used to select applicants for work teams and suggest that effective use of PJ will create both cohesive work units and effectively functioning work units. shyness The tendency to be reserved or timid during social interactions, usually coupled with feelings of dis- comfort and nervousness. social anxiety A feeling of apprehension and embarrassment experienced when anticipating or actually interacting with other people. experience sampling A research method that asks par- ticipants to record their thoughts, emotions, or behavior at the time they are experiencing them rather than at a later time or date; in some cases, participants make their entries when they are signaled by researchers using electronic pagers, personal data assistants (PDAs), or similar devices. social anxiety disorder (or social phobia) A persistent and pervasive pattern of overwhelming anxiety and self- consciousness experienced when anticipating or actually interacting with other people. Affects 5% of adults. attachment style One’s characteristic approach to relationships with other people; the basic styles include secure, preoccupied, fearful, and dismissing, as defined by the 2 dimensions of anxiety and avoidance. Secure Attachment Comfortable with interpersonal intimacy. Low avoidance, low anxiety. Authoritative Parenting Preoccupied Attachment Seek out membership, but worried about it. High anxiety, low avoidance. Avoidant/Dismissing Attachment Evades intimacy with others, uninterested with groups. HIgh avoidance, low anxiety. Permissive Parenting Anxious Attachment People desire intimacy, but are worried/fearful about rejection. High avoidance, high anxiety. Authoritarian Parenting Parenting Style Authoritarian, Permissive, Authoritative. Authoritarian Parenting High demand, low warmth. Strict rules and expectations. Limited flexibility and autonomy. Emphasis on obedience and discipline. May lead to compliance but potentially reduced self-esteem. May lead to anxious or insecure attachment. Permissive Parenting Low demand, high warmth. Few rules and boundaries. High degree of freedom and autonomy for the child. Limited discipline and consequences. May lead to independence but potentially lack of self-control. May lead to avoidant attachment. Authoritative Parenting Balanced approach with high demand and high warmth. Clear rules with flexibility. Emphasis on communication and reasoning. Encourages independence and self-discipline. Associated with positive outcomes in children's development. May lead to a secure attachment style. need for affiliation A motivating state of tension that can be relieved by joining with other people, which frequently includes concerns about winning the approval of other people. need for affiliation in Groups Those with a high need in this tend to join more groups and spend more time with them. Often fear rejection or relationships are severed/unpleasant interactions. need for intimacy A motivating state of tension that can be relieved by seeking out warm, positive relation- ships with others. need for intimacy in Groups Those with a high need in this tend to join more groups in order to find close relationships with others. Tend to care more for others - do not fear rejection as a person motivated by affiliation. need for power A motivating state of tension that can be relieved by gaining control over other people and one’s environment. need for power in Groups Those with a high need in this tend to join groups to influence others, need for control in groups (eg organising and structuring activities). Fundamental Interpersonal Relations Orientation (FIRO) Individuals need to receive and express inclusion, control, and affection influences group-seeking tendencies. 3 Basic Needs; 1. Inclusion. 2. Control. 3, Affection. Developed by William Schutz. Shutz FIRO Inclusion Forming new relationships and associating with others; determines the extent of contact and prominence that a person seeks. Include; belonging, involvement, participation, recognition, distinction. Shutz FIRO Control Relates to decision making, influence, and persuasion between people; extent of power dominance that a person seeks include; power, authority, influence, responsibility, consistency. Shutz FIRO Affection Relates to emotional ties and warm connections between people; it determines the extent of closeness that a person seeks. Include; personal ties, consensus, sensitivity, support, openness. FIRO Continued For each of the 3 interpersonal needs, the FIRO instrument also provides a measure of how much need is Expressed or Wanted by you. FIRO Expressed The extent to which you will initiate the behaviour. FIRO Expressed Inclusion I make efforts to include other people in my activities and ti get them to include me in theirs. I try to belong, to join social groups, and to be with people as much as possible. FIRO Expressed Control I try to exert control and influence over things. I take charge of things and tell other people what to do. FIRO Expressed Affection I make efforts to become close to people. I express friendly and affectionate feelings and try to be personal and intimate. FIRO Wanted The extent to which you want or will accept that behaviour from others. FIRO Wanted Inclusion I want other people to include me in their activities and to invite me to belong, even if I do not make an effort to be included. FIRO Wanted Control I want others to control and influence me. I want other people to tell me what to do. FIRO Wanted Affection I want others to express friendly and affectionate feelings toward me and to try to become close to me. FIRO-B Tool can help you maximise the impact of your actions, identify options for increasing your job satisfaction and productivity, and explore alternative ways to achieve your goals. 6 FIRO B Scales relationality The degree to which one’s values, attitudes, and outlooks emphasise and facilitate establishing and maintaining connections to others. Affects whether or not someone will join a group. Gender in rationality There are few differences between sexes in their values/around group formation. Needs to be researched in greater depth. Women seek in smaller, intimate, informal groups. Men seek more formal, task oriented, and agentic in nature. Males in Joining Groups Seek membership in larger, formal, task-focused groups. Male groups are more competitive, often vie for status and power. Females in Joining Groups More extraverted, caring, warm, empathetic, socially responsible. More likely to join small, supportive groups. Likely to define themselves in terms of their group membership and relationship. Roger’s Self-Concept Self - The person I think I am. Ideal self - The person I would like to be. Roger’s Congruence Consistencies between the self and the ideal self. The larger the discrepancies between the two, the more psychological problems one experiences - this is a threat to self-concept. One perspective is that our self-concept is constantly changing and malleable. collaborative circle A relatively small group of peers who work together for an extended period of time, exchanging ideas for commentary and critique and developing a shared conception of what their methods and goals should be. Emotions Is a positive or negative experience generally in reaction to stimuli that are accompanied by physiological arousal and characteristic behaviour (happiness, sadness, fear, surprise, anger, disgust - pride, love, joy, shame, guilt, jealousy). Emotions and Social Motivation Approach VS Avoidance. The need to belong (or not) should direct goal related activity. Our Rolodex of experiences. Future behaviour is impacted. Motivation & Our Rolodex of experiences - belief/attitude towards groups. More positive experiences should increase motivation for belongingness vs negative experiences (decreases motivation). Social Anxiety & Phobia Not everyone is thrilled by joining a group. Becomes conditioned behaviour with negative side effects (conscious or unconscious) Negative prior experiences = avoidance. Positive prior experiences = seeking bx. Fear of social situations. Affects approx. 5% of Ameicans and between 6-7% of Canadians. Disaffiliate BX Reduce social contact Innocuous Sociability Merge into the group’s background Fear of Social Situations A feeling of apprehension and embarrassment experienced when anticipating or actually interacting with other people. Manifestations of Social Anxiety & Phobia Manifests the same mobilisation as if fleeing from a predator. This mobilisation is out of proportion to the actual threat. Persistent, excessive, unrealistic fear of a specific object/situation. 3 Features of Social Anxiety & Phobia 1. Affective. 2. Cognitive. 3. Somatic. There must be impact in 1 of 3 areas - cognitively, occupation/academic, and socially (social anxiety vs. social phobia). Social Anxiety & Phobia in Brain Part of the brain that deals with physical pain is activated with emotional pain - right prefrontal cortex and the limbic system. Thalamus, amygdala, anterior insula, dorsal and anterior cingulate cortex. People diagnosed with social anxiety have heightened level of activity when faced with threatening faces or social situations. Social Anxiety & Phobia Hormones Various stress hormones are released norepinephrine, dopamine, and cortisol. General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) Stress is the nonspecific response of the body to any demand made upon it (Selye, 1974). Everyone experiences GAS when under extreme stress. Describes the body’s response to stress in 3 distinct stages Stressor => Alarm Reaction => Resistance Phase => Exhaustion. Describes the body’s response to stress in 3 distinct stages GAS Stage 1: Alarm Reaction Our body is programmed for homeostasis. Part of the nervous system that controls involuntary movement of smooth muscles plus heart rate and lunges. Body perceives the stressor, and flight or fight response is activated. This involves the immediate surge of hormones like adrenaline, which prepare the body to deal with the stressor. Physiological responses such as increased heart rate and heightened alertness are common during this stage. GAS Stage 2: Resistance Phase If stressor persists, body enters this phase. Body attempts to adapt to ongoing stress and characteristics of the alarm reaction stage virtually disappear. Stress hormone levels may remain elevates, and the body tries to maintain a state of readiness to confront the stressor. May cause resistance actually rises to above normal. Have learned to cope with the stressors in our lives. Function at higher than normal levels of physiological arousal. Leads to increased wear and tear on the body. Ex; The movie “The Hurt Locker” or “American Sniper”. GAS Stage 3: Exhaustion If the stressor continues for an extended period without relief or if additional stressors accumulate, the body may eventually reach this stage. Body’s resources are depleted and it has exhausted its energy supply => can no longer effectively cope with stress. Physical signs & symptoms of stress originally evident in the alarm reaction reappear. Difference is that now many of these symptoms are irreversible. Damage to the body can be permanent ie. health issues, chronic fatigue, etc, and ultimately can be deadly. Types of Stress External or internal factors, situations, or events that cause stress by challenging an individual's ability to cope with or adapt to them. They can be physical, emotional, psychological, or environmental in nature. Social Readjustment Scale Holmes & Rahe (1967) Stress assessment tool that quantifies the impact of major life events on an individuals stress levels. It assigns a numerical value to various life events and helps estimate the cumulative stress a person might experience within a specific time frame. Used to predict the likelihood of stress-related illnesses based on the total score of life events experienced. Describe events with different intensity # of significant life changes increases the risk if illness grows. social movement A deliberate, sustained, and organised group of individuals seeking change or resisting a change in a social system. Movements are sustained by individuals who may share a common outlook on issues or by members of identifiable social groups or categories, but not by businesses, political organizations, or governments. 2 Factors that influence motivation to join social movement; sense of injustice and angry emotions. affiliation The gathering together of individuals (typically members of the same species) in one location; also, a formalized relationship, as when an individual is said to be affiliated with a group or organization. social comparison Gaining information from other people’s reactions evaluating oneself to others and the environment in order to know how to behave (no objective criteria). Leon Festinger 1954. Why Social Comparison? Helps reduce ambiguity. 2 factor theory - greater cognitive clarity = less anxiety (greater mental awareness of physiology). People engage in this for many reasons - validation, evaluation of self, etc. 2-Factor Theory Greater cognitive clarity = less anxiety (greater mental awareness of physiology) Schachter’s Studies of Affiliation Electric Shock Studies - ½ women in low anxiety (little shock) & ½ in high anxiety (hurtful). Wait alone or with others. Misery loves company - people affiliate with others (approx. ⅔ of high anxiety & ⅓ of low anxiety). Schachter 1959 Affiliation Study Hypothesised that induced anxiety would produce an increase of affiliative tendencies. Had 2 conditions; high and low anxiety. High anxiety condition; 19% wanted to leave, 63% wanted to ramain together, 33% wanted to be together in the low anxiety condition. Misery doesn’t just love any kind of company, it loves only miserable company. Participate were expecting to determine from the other participants how afraid they should be of the upcoming shocks. Schachter Findings Misery loves miserable company - Found people prefer to wait with others facing a similar experience (approx. 605) or already face the experience. Like penguins, we like to huddle up. Why did the anxious girls want to be in a group? Possible explanations are: 1. Escape (get talked out of it by others) 2. Cognitive Clarity (talk about ambigious situation with others. 3. Direct Anxiety Reduction (comfort and support each other, bolster courage). 4. Self-Evaluation: Compare emotions and feelings versus others. 5. Indirect Anxiety Reduction (talk about something else to take mind off situation). social support A sense of belonging, emotional support, advice, guidance, tangible assistance, and perspective provided by groups when members experience stress, daily hassles, and more significant life crises. Social Support Affiliation Plays a role in both “fight or flight” and “tend or befriend”. People support and affiliate with others. Work together for protection/survival and support. Women and men prefer to affiliate with women. Types of Social Support Approval/Belonging. Emotional. Informational. Instrumental. Spiritual. Social Support - Approval/Belonging: Groups let members know that they are valued members and reassure them that they are not alone in facing their problems; they meet members’ need to feel included and accepted. Social Support - Emotional support: Group members express their caring, concern, and affection for one another; they minimise self-doubt, tension, and vulner- ability while increasing self-esteem, resilience, and self-satisfaction. Members compliment, encourage, and listen to one another. Social Support - Informational support: Groups provide members with useful information for solving problems, making decisions, and setting their goals; they offer advice, guidance, and suggestions. Social Support - Instrumental support: Groups offer tangible assistance to their members, as when they help each other with assigned tasks, loan money and materials to one another, or work collaboratively on shared tasks. Social Support - Spiritual/Meaning: Groups provide members with existential, or spiritual support, by allaying Directional Comparison what happens when self esteem is threatened; directional comparison. Two types of directional comparison; 1. downward social comparison 2. upward social comparison. downward social comparison Selecting people who are less well off as targets for social comparison (rather than individuals who are similar or superior to oneself or one’s outcomes). Bolsters sense of competence. upward social comparison Selecting people who are superior to oneself or whose outcomes surpass one’s own as targets for social comparison. Hope & Motivation (Eg, Lance Armstrong, Therapy Group Members). Abraham Tesser’s self-evaluation maintenance (SEM) model A theoretical analysis of social comparison processes that assumes that individuals maintain and enhance their self-esteem by associating with high-achieving individuals who excel in areas that are not relevant to the individual’s own sense of self-esteem. and avoiding association with high-achieving individuals who excel in areas that are important to the individual’s sense of self-esteem. People affiliate with individuals who do not outperform them in areas that are very relevant to their self-esteem. social comparison orientation The dispositional tendency to compare oneself to others. Theodore Newcomb's Studies on Acquaintance Process and Group Formation Newcomb conducted research on how individuals form relationships within groups. Studied incoming students at Bennington College. Observed students gradually adapting their attitudes to align with their peers' attitudes. Demonstrated the influence of social norms and group dynamics on individual beliefs. Conclusions from Newcomb's Research Individuals tend to conform to the attitudes and behaviors of their peer groups. Group dynamics play a significant role in shaping individual attitudes and behaviors. People adapt their beliefs to align with the social norms and values of their groups. Peer influence is a powerful factor in the development of personal beliefs and attitudes within the context of group formation. Principles of attraction Based on Newcomb’s studies. 1. Proximity principle. 2. Elaboration principle. 3. Similarity principle. proximity principle The tendency for individuals to form interpersonal relations with those who are close by; also known as the “principle of propinquity.” People tend to like those who are near by. As interactions increase, the individuals become more grouplike. elaboration principle Groups often emerge when groups, as complex system, grow as additional elements (people) become linked to original members. similarity principle The tendency for individuals to seek out, affiliate with, or be attracted to an individual who is similar to them in some way; this tendency causes groups and other interpersonal aggregates to be homogenous rather than diverse. Ie homophily; similarity in values, attitudes, appearance, etc. homophily “Love of the same”; the tendency for the members of groups and other collectives to be similar to one another in some way, such as demographic background, attitudes, and values; generally expressed informally as “birds of a feather flock together.” Sean Mackinnon (2011) Study Why do we sit near people like us? Studied 18 university classes (n>2000) - people were more likely to sit beside someone who matched them by hair colour and length than by chance. 174 participants were shown 8 different images of people and were asked how much they perceived them to have similar values - people chose those who looked physically similar to them. Complementarity principle A tendency for opposites to attract when the ways in which people are dissimilar are congruent (complementary) in some way. Self-esteem is lower so we find and are attracted to people who are dissimilar to us; there is no competition so there is no threat to self-esteem. Similarity is more common than complimentary. Shutz - interchange compatibility When group members have similar expectations about our 3 social motives; 1. Intimacy 2. Control 3. Inclusiveness. People must share similar expectations about how much each of these needs is required for the group. Shutz - originator compatibility. People who have a need for control, inclusion, and affection join others who accept these behaviours. Based on complementary principle. Reciprocity principle The tendency for liking to be met with liking in return; when A likes B, then B will tend to like A. Liking tends to be mutual, dislike those who reject us. Minimax principle A general preference for relationships and memberships that provide the maximum number of valued rewards and incur the fewest number of possible costs. Sean Machinnon 2011 - Do We Sit Near People Who Are Like Us? Studied 18 uni classes (n>2000). People were more likely to sit beside someone matched them by hair colour and hair length then by chance. 174 participants were shown 8 different images of people and were asked how much they perceived them to have similar values. People chose those who looked physically similar to them. Transitivity The liking of one person to the next to the next, etc. Group interaction influences this. Social Exchange Theory John Thibaut & Harold Kelly. helps explain how individuals evaluate and make decisions about relationships by weighing the rewards and costs, comparing these to their expectations and alternatives, and aiming for outcomes that maximize their satisfaction and minimize dissatisfaction. Relationships are like economic exchanges, bargains where maximum outcomes sought with minimum investment - costs, rewards, commitment. Outcome (Satisfaction) = Rewards (ie companionship or support) Costs (ie time, effort, personal sacrifice) Equity Theory In addition to the outcomes, equity theory suggests that individuals also consider the fairness or equity in a relationship. Imbalances in rewards and costs may lead to feelings of inequity. Comparison level (CL) In social exchange theory; standard by which individuals evaluate the desirability of group membership. Satisfaction is determined by comparison level of prior experience. Prior experiences with higher rewards = higher CL (do benefits outweigh the costs). In most cases, individuals whose prior relationships yielded positive rewards with few costs will have higher CLs than those who experienced fewer rewards and more costs in prior relationships. Each person has a subjective comparison level that reflects their expectations of what they should receive in a relationship. They compare the actual rewards and costs to this level to determine satisfaction. Comparison level for alternatives (CLalt) In social exchange theory; standard by which individuals evaluate the quality of other groups that they may join informally is the lowest level of outcomes a member will accept - this impacts joining or leaving a group. Individuals also consider the potential rewards and costs of alternative relationships. If they believe they can find a better option elsewhere, they may be less satisfied in their current relationship. Entering & Exiting a Group Largely determined by CLalt) and satisfaction within the group (CL). Tim Van Horn Each of us is innately unique in every aspect of who we are, we all think our own thoughts, dress a certain way and are individuals. The “Canadian mosaic” - represents tree of life - bring all those differences together and celebrate who we are as people.