PYSC 224 Experimental Psychology Lecture Notes PDF

PYSC 224: Experimental Psychology Dr. Margaret Amankwah-Poku Email: [email protected] Office Hours: Tuesdays: 12 noon - 2:00pm Dr. Kwaku Oppong Asante Email: koppongasante@ug,edu.gh Office Hours: Thursdays: 10am - 12...

PYSC 224: Experimental Psychology Dr. Margaret Amankwah-Poku Email: [email protected] Office Hours: Tuesdays: 12 noon - 2:00pm Dr. Kwaku Oppong Asante Email: koppongasante@ug,edu.gh Office Hours: Thursdays: 10am - 12 noon Dr. John Dotse [email protected] Office Hours: Wednesdays: 12 noon - 2:00pm PYSC 224: Experimental Psychology Dr. Margaret Amankwah-Poku Lecture 1 Office Hours: Tuesday: 12noon - 2:00pm Email: [email protected]  What is experimental Psychology? The branch of psychology that studies the processes of: sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world, through the use of controlled experimentation Applying experimental method to the study of behavior and its underlying processes  What is Experimental psychology? As a science, psychology attempts to: 1. understand 2. explain 3. predict and 4. Ultimately, improve the lives of people and the world in which they live  What is Experimental psychology? The scientific method is the best approach for: 1. eliminating biases and opinions, 2. reaching a consensus about how behaviour truly operates and 3. correcting errors It enable psychologists answer questions about human behaviour in a more valid way than non- scientific procedures  Origin of experimental psychology Psychology did not begin as a scientific discipline until the late nineteenth century German physiologist Gustav Theodore Fechner (1801-1887) was one of the first scientists to study psychological processes He published his findings in 1860 in a book he titled “Elements of Psychophysics”  Origin of experimental psychology In 1850, Herman von Helmholtz developed a theory of how people perceive colour Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)- established the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany to study conscious experiences (Coon, 2001) Thus, the discovery of psychology as an independent science is attributed to Wundt With the establishment of Wundt’s laboratory, psychology made a transition from philosophy to science (Benjamin, 2000)  What is an Experiment? When you decide to cook using a new recipe you may say you are experimenting with this new recipe. In the same way you may want to experiment with a new route that leads to your house to find out if is may be shorter Or eat food you have never tried before to experiment and find out how that food tastes  What is an Experiment? The systematic manipulation of some factors in the environment to observe the effect of this manipulation on behaviour The process of scientifically confirming or disconfirming a fact or principle A problem is investigated scientifically, by manipulating certain variables to observe if it will affect other variables, while holding other variables constant  What is an Experiment? So, a. which variable are manipulated b. which are measured and c. which are controlled?  What is an Experiment? A psychological experiment has been defined by Zimney (1961) as an: “objective observation of phenomena that are made to occur in a strictly controlled situation in which one or more factors are varied and the others are kept constant”.  Terms in Zimney’s definition “Objective observation” making observations void of personal biases Phenomena: an event or occurrence “Strictly controlled situation”: conducting an experiment such that no other factors are interfering with the conduct of the experiment Terms in Zimney’s definition One or more factors are varied”; the experimenter varies the independent variable to observe its effect on the dependent variable “Others are kept constant”. Certain variables may not be of interest to an experimenter but they can still affect the conduct of an experiment. Sources of acquiring knowledge Sources of acquiring knowledge Charles Sanders Peirce (1877) an American psychologist compared the scientific way of knowing to other methods of knowing That is authority, tenacity and a priori methods  Authority Represents an acceptance of information or facts stated by a highly respected source or someone in authority A trusted authority tells you what is true and what is false Example- a child will believe what his/her parent tells him because the child’s parent is an authority to him Provided nothing happens to raise doubts about the competence of a authority this method offers the greatest advantage of minimum effort  Tenacity Tenacity is the acceptance of a belief (Peirce, 1877) based on the idea that “we have always known it to be this way” (Ray 1997) Tenacity is based on a) superstition or b) habits  Tenacity Tenacity is based on superstition: It is the “acquisition and persistence of superstitions” because superstitions represent beliefs that people respond to as if they were truths (Christensen, 2007) Tenacity is based on habits: Habits lead people to continue believing something they have always believed “This is how it is done because we have always done it this way” (Christensen, 2007)  A priori method ‘A priori’ means knowledge that comes before experience Something that is believed without prior study or examination E.g. people once believed that the world was flat  Intuition This is not based on reasoning or inferring We form impressions about strangers within a few seconds of meeting them by intuition (McBurney, 2001) Example- when you think someone is not trustworthy the instant you meet them Predictions and descriptions that psychics make are not based on any facts, inferences or known reasoning, but on intuition (Christensen, 1997)  Rational method Knowledge is obtained through reasoning Thus, it is assumed that if the correct reasoning process is used, valid knowledge can be acquired Reasoning is a vital element in the scientific process However, reasoning is used to arrive at hypotheses which are tested for validity using scientific method  Commonsense This is based on our own experiences and perceptions of the world We develop explanations of the events that occur around us mostly based on limited information and from what our previous experience told us is true E.g.- Commonsense makes us believe that “birds of the same feather flock together”, “ Science also offers explanations to occurrences, but subjected to rigorous scrutiny  Empiricism This is the acquisition of knowledge through experience This approach says “if I have experienced something, then it is valid and true” Thus, we tend to believe the information acquired through our senses Empiricism is a vital element in science but it refers to the collection of data through the use of the scientific method  Science This method differs from the others in terms of its characteristics of control, operational definition and replication (Christensen, 2007) Ideas and beliefs are empirically tested using specific testing procedure The best method of acquiring knowledge because information yielded is dependable as it is ultimately based on objectively observed evidence devoid of personal beliefs, perceptions, biases, values, attitudes and emotions  PYSC 224: Experimental Psychology Dr. Margaret Amankwah-Poku Lecture 2 Office Hours: Tuesday: 12 noon - 2:00pm Email: [email protected] The Scientific Methodology Basic and Applied Research Basic and Applied Research The aims of researches may vary depending on the phenomena under study (Bordens & Abbot, 2002) Some psychologist aim to discover general laws that explain behaviours (e.g. human development)- Basic research Others aim at investigating practical problems (e.g. developing therapy to treat eating disorder)- Applied research Basic and Applied Research 1. Basic research In psychology, basic research is conducted to confirm or disconfirm theoretical positions Psychologists conduct basic research in order to obtain information about a phenomenon or behaviour There is very little emphasis on the application of the phenomenon to the real world E.g.- Gaining understanding into human growth and development Basic and Applied Research 2. Applied research Investigate a phenomena or behaviour in the real world and apply findings to real world problems It is used to answer a specific question that has direct applications to the world It is problem focused because it seeks to answer questions in the real world Example- motivation and productivity at workplace, dietary self-care in diabetes etc.  Basic and Applied Research The difference between basic and applied research is what they will be used for To further our knowledge and information? To help us understand a real world problem and solve it or Sometimes there is an overlap of basic and applied research Example- The REBT theory and its application in clinical practice Theory  What is a Theory A theory is “a set of related statements that explain a variety of occurrences” (Kantowitz, Roediger III & Elmes, 2015 p.8) Theories are created and invented through research Theory explains and predicts the relationship between variable Theories guides research and organises its ideas  What is a Theory During research, a researcher will provide a theoretical framework for his/her study Theory becomes stronger as more supporting evidence is gathered Theory has the capacity to generate new research A good theory must suggests new hypotheses that are capable of being tested empirically  Some Theories in Psychology Theory of Reasoned Action Health Belief Model Stress Theory (Selye), etc. Erikson's Psychosocial Developmental Theory Piaget's Cognitive Developmental Theory Trait Theory of Personality Humanistic Theory of Personality What is a Hypothesis  What is a Hypothesis A formal statement of the expected relationships among variables A prediction or tentative solution to a problem A hypothesis should be one that predicts a relationship between two or more variables It must be testable, simple and concise Must be stated so that it is capable of being either refuted or confirmed  What is a Hypothesis Example- investigating the effects of alcohol on recall of words learned Our hypothesis will represent predictions of the relationship between alcohol and recall Tested by recording the rate of recall of individuals who are administered alcohol and the data is analysed  Types of hypothesis There are two types of hypothesis – 1. Null hypothesis- represents a statement of no relationship among variables being investigated E.g.- There will be no differences in illnesses experience by children who are breast-fed and children who are bottle-fed There will be no differences in the academic performance of students who attend tutorials and students who do nor attend tutorials  Types of hypothesis 2. The scientific hypothesis (alternate/ working/ researcher’s hypotheses)- represents the predicted relationship among variables being investigated E.g.- Children who are breast-fed will experience less illnesses than children who are bottle-fed Students who attend tutorials will have good academic performance than students who do not attend tutorials  Types of Hypothesis Hypotheses that researchers set can be a. Simple- made up of just two variables b. Complex- made up of more than two variables Hypothesis can also be i. Directional ii. Non-directional Nature of scientific methodology Characteristics of scientific research Christensen (2007) identified three most important characteristics ❑Control ❑Operational definition ❑Replication  Characteristics of scientific research 1. Control Eliminating any extraneous variable that can affect an experiment The most important element in scientific methodology It enables researchers identify the causes of phenomena they investigate  Characteristics of scientific research 2. Operational definition/ Operationalism “Definition of concepts by the operations used to attain or measure them” (Christensen, 2007, p.21) It is a way of defining the variable to make it measurable This is necessary to eliminate confusion in communication  Characteristics of scientific research Example- Diabetes patients who have been diagnosed for a longer period will have better glycemic levels than patients who have been diagnosed for a shorter period What needs to be operationally defined?  Characteristics of scientific research 3. Replication The reproduction results obtained from a study Replication may result in one of two possible outcomes Either the results are a) replicated or b) not replicated ❑a) Replicated- it gives additional assurance that the results are reliable Characteristics of scientific research ❑b) Not replicated- it is possible that results of the previous study were due to chance ❑Or replication experiment might have altered some significant element in the experiment Steps in Scientific Methodology Steps in Scientific Methodology Christensen (2007) identified five steps in scientific methodology 1. Identify a problem and formulate a hypothesis 2. Design the research 3. Conduct the research 4. Test the hypothesis 5. Communicate the research results Steps in Scientific Methodology 1. Identify a problem and formulate a hypothesis Identify an issue that one wants to study by observing everyday behaviour or reading about previous research Refine and narrow the problem identified to make it researchable Hypotheses are formulated  Steps in Scientific Methodology 2. Design the research Specify the independent (levels?) and dependent variables and how extraneous variables will be controlled The researcher must also decide on the design for the research The researcher must decide, ❑which participants are to be tested, where, when, with what instrument, etc. Steps in Scientific Methodology 3. Conduct the research Making decisions concerning the actual conduct of the experiment First, select research participants Then manipulate the independent variable Then measures the dependent variable Ensure that all extraneous variables are controlled Steps in Scientific Methodology The dependent variable is usually one of three general types, ❑self-report measures ❑behavioural measures or ❑physiological measures Discuss these at tutorials Steps in Scientific Methodology 4. Testing the hypothesis Data must be analysed and interpreted to confirmed or refuted the hypotheses Statistical software such as SPSS can be used Results must then be interpreted to specify exactly what they mean Steps in Scientific Methodology 5. Communicate the research results Results of the research must be communicated to others Professional journals in a field e.g. Journal of Clinical Psychology etc. Write a research report stating how the research was conducted and what was found The effect of feedback on task performance Identify a problem and formulate a hypothesis Design the research Conduct the research Test the hypothesis Communicate the research results  Researchable & non researchable topics Always ensure that your topic is researchable Researchable topics/ questions are ones that can be (empirical) investigated Good research questions should be Feasible, Clearly stated, Significant, Ethical  Researchable & non researchable topics They can be logically researched and tested using the scientific method They state hypothesis that can be tested rather than address an opinion Methodology is clear from the topic They allow for data to be collect and analyzed Researchable & non researchable topics Examples: Which approaches taken by University of Ghana will be the most effective ways to ensure cleanliness on campus? What is the effect of knuckle-cracking on the development of osteoarthritis? How do employers perceived first class honours students? Researchable & non researchable topics Non-researchable problems include: Explanations of how to do something Vague propositions Address philosophical or ethical issues State or address opinions They cannot be resolved through data collection and analysis  Non researchable topics What is the best way to learn to read? Are some people born bad? Can crime be prevented? Is democracy the best form of government? Should cell phone use while driving be banned? Should sex education be taught in public schools?  Making non researchable topics researchable What is the best way to learn to read? At which age is it better to introduce phonics- age 5, 6 or 7 People are born bad Who commits more crime- poor people or rich people? Crime can be prevented Getting youth employed will reduce crime PYSC 224: Experimental Psychology Dr. Margaret Amankwah-Poku Lecture 3 What is a True Experiment?  True experiment A study in which a researcher actively manipulates a variable that participants are exposed to Randomly assign the independent variable(s) to the groups or participants involved in the experiment Extraneous variable are controlled, while the influence of the independent variable is tested  True experiment In a true experiment, internal validity is established because cause effect relationships can be established The experimenter has complete control over the experiment i.e. the who, what, when, where and how of the conduct of the experiment A true experiment with a true independent variable allows random assignment of subjects to each condition Research Settings  Research settings The two research settings open for psychosocial research are the Laboratory and Field settings Experimental approach is used in both laboratory setting and field settings Where the field experiment is strong, the laboratory experiment is weak and vice versa  Research settings 1. Laboratory experiments A laboratory- any research setting that is artificial, relative to the setting in which the behaviour naturally occurs Laboratory experiment- a study conducted in the laboratory where the researcher precisely manipulates one or more variables and controls the influence of nearly all of the extraneous variables (Christensen, 2007) Milgram’s experiment  Research settings 2. Field Experiments An experimental research study conducted in a real-life setting- in the participants natural environment The researcher decides which variables to manipulate, how to manipulate them and when to manipulate them- but in a real-life setting Thus, he cannot really control extraneous variables- eg. background noise etc. Types of Variables in Experimentation  What is a Variable? Variables are the gears and cogs that make experiments run (Kantowitz, Roediger III & Elmes, 2015) A variable is any event, situation, behaviour, or individual characteristic that can be varied to have at least two values (Cozby, 2001) Observable characteristics that vary among individuals In every experiment the independent, dependent and extraneous variables have to be identified  Types of variables Effective selection and manipulation of variables makes the difference between a good experiment and a poor one (Kantowitz, Roediger III & Elmes, 2005) Variables can be categorized as Discrete or continuous Qualitative or quantitative  Types of Variables 1. Discrete variables Variables that are measured solely in whole units or in categories Discrete variable have no intermediate values possible (e.g. number of textbooks bought) Example- race, (black, white or mixed race) , or sex (male or female), or state of wellbeing (sick or well) A person can only belong to one of these categories  Types of Variables 2. Continuous variables Variables that form a continuum and can be represented by both whole and fractional units It is not restricted to particular values Example- attitude towards work could be extremely positive, positive or extremely negative  Types of Variables Variables could also be qualitative or quantitative 1. Qualitative variables Qualitative variables vary in kind Manipulating a quality or attribute of the situation that participants are exposed to Example- the quality of room lighting system (dim, bright)  Types of Variables 2. Quantitative variables Quantitative variables vary in amount Manipulating the amount of variable that participants are exposed to Example- loudness is measured in decibels or time could be measured in hours minutes or seconds Independent Variables, Dependent Variables & Extraneous Variables  Independent variables The variable that is purposely changed Its values are chosen and set by the experimenter (called the levels) The variable hypothesized to be one of the causes of the presumed effect Example- increasing the number of tutorials attended will increase academic performance Increasing the number of therapy sessions will reduce the period of grieving for a loss  Independent variables Should be one that can be manipulated, there should be variations in this variable by: ❑1. Presence versus absence technique- research participants are exposed to two levels i.e. treatment condition or no treatment condition ❑Example- A drug, exercise, feedback, motivation, learning strategy, psychotherapy, etc.  Independent variables ❑ 2. Administering different amounts of the independent variable to each of the several groups ❑Example- 5 bottles, 2 bottles, 1 bottle and 0 bottle beer to four groups ❑3. administering different types of the independent variable ❑Example- positive or negative feedback ❑type of psychotherapy- REBT, Motivational interviewing etc.  Dependent Variables The dependent variable changes in response to the independent variable The variable whose value is observed and recorded Measures the influence or effect of the independent variable Expected to change as a result of manipulation of the independent variable  Extraneous variables Any variable other than the independent variable that can influence the dependent variable but is not of interest to the experimenter A potential independent variable that is held constant during an experiment If not controlled, a causal relationship cannot be establish E.g.- The effects of instructional strategies on student’s performance Terms used in Experimentation Terms used in Experimentation 1. Population The entire collection or group of people or animals belonging to a particular category (Coon 2001), that a researcher selects his participants from The target population is made up of all of the individuals of interest to the researcher The researcher selects some of them based on a particular criteria to serve as the sample Terms used in Experimentation 2. Sample People selected from a population to be tested as research participant May be drawn from the population using probability sampling or non-probability sampling techniques The method used to select participants (i.e. sampling technique) has implications for generalising the research results  Terms used in Experimentation The sample size to be tested should be specified The type of research design has implications for the sample size ❑ Quantitative/ descriptive research studies needs hundreds of participants ❑Experiments generally need a lot less ❑Qualitative research design may need even lesser participants  Terms used in Experimentation 3. Participant People who collaborate in an experiment for the purpose of allowing their behaviour to be studied The phenomenon under study will determine the type of participants to be studied Psychotherapy experiment- a group of phobias or depressives or diabetes patients etc.  Terms used in Experimentation 4. Experimental Group A group of participants in an experiment that receives the treatment condition or some amount of independent variable Also known as the treatment group  Terms used in Experimentation 5. Control Group A group of participants in an experiment that do not receive any treatment or independent variable They serves as a standard of comparison to determine if the treatment conditions produced any effect It is necessary that subjects are similar to those in the experimental group Terms used in Experimentation 6. Confederate A person in an experiment who has been instructed to behave in ways that could affect the responses of participants Confederates help administer the independent variable Merely act as if they are participants to create a situation to deceive the research participants Pseudo-subjects  Terms used in Experimentation 7. Randomization Ensue every member has an equal chance of being assigned to any group Randomly selected participants should be randomly assigned to the various groups in an experiment Procedures such as tossing coins or using a table of random numbers can be employed Note- At random does not mean haphazardly Terms used in Experimentation 8. Internal Validity The extent to which a cause-effect relationship can be established between an independent and dependent variable An experiment lacks internal validity if confounding variables are not controlled Terms used in Experimentation 9. External Validity The extent to which the findings of a research can be generalized to other situations or populations, other than the population of study Terms used in Experimentation 10. Generalizability The extent to which the findings of a research conducted on a sample of a population can be extended to the population at large PYSC 224: Experimental Psychology Lecture 4a Dealing with threats to validity and reliability Reliability in Experimentation Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure The consistency of response that individuals make to a psychological assessment device (Schultz & Schultz, 2009) If an individual takes the same test on two different days he/she should obtain the same or very similar scores If two widely different scores, are obtained, then the test will not be considered as reliable, because the results obtained are inconsistent Reliability in Experimentation Note that it is common to find some slight variation in scores when a test is retaken There are several procedures to determine the reliability of a test Test-retest method- a test is administered to the same person on two different occasions and scores correlated Internal consistency- the consistency of people’s responses across the items on a measure Inter-rater reliability- the extent to which different researchers or observers are consistent in their judgments- during observations, rating assessments etc.  Validity in Experimentation Validity simply refers to a researcher’s conclusion being true/ correct It is also the extent to which the an assessment tool measures what it says it measures If a test does not measure what it purports to, then it is not valid This means that the results of such a test cannot be used to predict behaviour  Validity in Experimentation There are different forms of validity Internal validity Construct validity External validity Statistical validity  Validity in Experimentation Internal validity- It relates to the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable The most basic type of validity Construct validity- The extent to which the outcome of a study supports the theory behind the study (McBurney, 2001)  Validity in Experimentation Statistical validity- The extent to which the data obtained reflects the cause effect relationship and not by accident This is similar to internal validity External validity- The extent to which the finding of a study can be generalized to other situations or populations (McBurney, 2001) To guide against threat to internal validity a researcher has to avoid the confounding of potential extraneous variables Extraneous Variables  Extraneous Variables 1. What are extraneous variables? 2. Types of extraneous variables ❑General extraneous variables ❑Participants and Experimenter variables 3. Controlling extraneous variables ❑a. Basic control techniques ❑b. Participant and Experimenter control  What are Extraneous variables? Any variable other than the independent variable that can influence the dependent variable They reduce internal validity “The experimenter observes participants in a specific environment and applies a measurement procedure” (Heiman, 1995)  What are Extraneous variables? That is: ❑Experimenter variables ❑Participants variables ❑Environmental variables ❑Measurement variables General Extraneous Variables  General extraneous variables Campbell & Stanley (1963) identified six general sources of extraneous variables that act as threats to internal validity 1. History 2. Maturation 3. Instrumentation 4. Statistical regression 5. Selection Bias 6. Mortality / Attrition  History Events that take place between pre and post measurements of the dependent variable, that can affect the outcome of the experiment They become probable rival hypotheses concerning the change that occurred between the pre and post measurements  History Example: Effect of anger management on violent secondary school children If aggressive behaviour decreases, can we conclude that treatment has been effective? History effect- something else in the school environment may have caused the decrease—e.g. less overcrowding, an aggressive student arrested by the police etc.  Maturation Changes in the internal conditions of the individual due to the passage of time Changes are both biological and psychological processes, e.g. age, learning, fatigue, boredom and hunger These are not related to specific external events but reside within the individual Maturation is a more critical problem in research involving children  Maturation Example: Effect of anger management on violent secondary school children If aggressive behaviour decreases, can we conclude that treatment has been effective? Maturation effect: between observations, participants could have grown out of aggressive  Instrumentation Changes that occur over time in the measurement of the dependent variable Being in an experiment or being tested can influence people’s performance in a later test or administration of test Participants may learn how to take the tests thus, later behaviour is changed by the earlier experience Example-You write a class test the first time and you do not perform well but you perform better on a second test  Instrumentation Second, some techniques used to measure the dependent variables may be subject to change during the course of a study Example- there may be unobserved changes in criteria used by observers or in instrumentation calibrations This is called instrument decay  Instrumentation Example: Effect of anger management on violent secondary school students If aggressive behaviour decreases, can we conclude that treatment has been effective? Testing effect: the act of assessing aggression may have led to awareness of students’ own aggression  Statistical Regression This is the lowering of extremely high scores or the raising of extremely low scores during post- testing This may occur because participant were selected for a study due to their extremely high or extremely low score on some characteristics They are selected to represent the extremes of behaviour etc.  Statistical Regression Thus, when they are retested, the scores tend to change in the direction of the mean Extremely high scores are likely to become lower, and extremely low scores are likely to become higher Example- Extremely heavy smokers selected for education to reduces smoking  Selection Bias Choosing participants for the various treatment groups on the basis of different criteria Participants are selected from an existing natural group resulting Selection can interact with maturation, history or instrumentation Example- selection by maturation interaction can occur when experimental groups selected are maturing at different rates  Mortality/ Attrition The differential loss of participants from the various comparison groups in an experiment This may produce differences in the groups that cannot be attributed to experimental treatment Participants who drop out from the experiment may be different from those who complete it Participant and Experimenter Effects  Participant effect Examples of participant effect as extraneous variables are: ❑Demand characteristic ❑Good participants tendency ❑Evaluation apprehension ❑Negative attitude  Participant effect 1. Demand characteristics Cues provided by the research context that guides or biases participants’ behaviour in a research Any variables in an experiment such as The instructions, experimenter, rumours or the experimental setting from which participants create their perception of the purpose of the experiment  Participant effect 2. Good participants tendency The tendency of participants alter their behaviour to act according to what they think the experimenter wants Example- participants may deliberately feign a naive attitude about a particular issue  Participant effect 3. Evaluation apprehension The tendency of participants to alter their behaviour in order to appear as socially desirable as possible Sometimes occur when participants think that the experiment is measuring their competence  Participant effect 4. Negative attitude Some participants go to a laboratory with a negative attitude to ruin an experiment Usually occurs when participants are required or forced to be in an experiment Experimenter Effect  Experimenter Effect Any change in participants’ performance that can be attributed to the experimenter It includes ❑Experimenter attribute ❑Experimenter expectancies  Experimenter Effect 1. Experimenter Attributes Rosenthal (1966) proposed 3 categories of attributes a. Biosocial attributes: such as experimenter’s age, sex, race and religion b. Psychosocial attributes: Experimenter’s anxiety level, hostility, friendliness, social behaviour, intelligence, etc. c. Situational factors: Whether or not (1) the experimenter and participants have had previous contact, is a naïve or experienced one etc.  Experimenter Effect 2. Experimenter Expectancies/ Bias The influence of the experimenter’s expectations regarding the outcome of an experiment The experimenter’s expectations can lead him/her to behave unintentionally in ways that will bias the results of the experiment in the desired direction PYSC 224: Experimental Psychology Lecture 4b Controlling Extraneous Variables Controlling Extraneous Variables Basic Control Techniques Controlling Participant effects Controlling Experimenter effects  Basic Control Techniques Discovering problems with internal validity after you have conducted a study is too late A poorly designed study cannot be fixed later on Extraneous variables cause changes in scores that have nothing to do with the effect of the independent variable/ treatment  Basic Control Techniques 1. Randomization This technique “equates groups of participants by ensuring every member an equal chance of being assigned to any group” (Christensen, 2007, pg. 264) The most important and basic of all the control methods Only technique for controlling unknown sources of variation Any extraneous variables, are distributed amongst the groups It allows internal validity to be established  Basic Control Techniques 2. Matching Using one of variety techniques to equating participants on one or more variables (Christensen, 2007) that can confound an experiment Variables on which participants are matched are controlled because constancy of influence is attained E.g.- matching participants on intelligence means the level of intelligence is held constant  Basic Control Techniques Matching can be done by a) holding variables constant Controls for extraneous variable(s) by holding them constant for all groups Participants in all the group will have the same degree or type of extraneous variable Example- When studying the effect of group cohesion on conformity, gender needs to be controlled  Basic Control Techniques Matching can also be done by: b) building the extraneous variables into the research design The extraneous variable is included in the study as an independent variable c) equating participants on the extraneous variable such as IQ, age, gender etc.  x Matching is commonly used in case-control studies (for example, if age and sex are the matching variables, then a 45 year old male case is matched to a male control with same age). 4a. So you will match the subjects by holding gender constant 4b. This is because conformity varies with gender so study only males or females or a mix in both groups 4c. E.g. Or the impact of social pressure on individual behaviour. 4d.E.g. Or people’s opinion about the poor economic situation in Ghana- comparing rural and urban areas Matching by holding confound variables constant (Produces control by including in the study only participants with a given amount or type of a confound variable)  xx 2Matching by building the Extraneous Variable into the design (Produces control by including in the study the confounding variable as another independent variable, isolating its effects from the other independent variables) Matching by equating participants (Equates participants on the variable or variables to be controlled, e.g., gender, age) Example, if our sample of children for our TV violence study contains children of various ages, we may decide that age is an extraneous variable that must be equated across the groups. Thus, we begin by grouping the children in our sample according to age. We then randomly assign them to the two groups according to age  Basic Control Techniques 3. Counterbalancing Used to control sequencing effects resulting from repeated measures of the dependent variable When participants in an experiment serve in each of the several experimental conditions The various treatments of the experiment are assigned in a different order for different participants to reduce the sequencing effect  Basic Control Techniques Can be complete counterbalancing or partial counterbalancing Complete balancing provides every possible ordering of treatment and assigns at least one subject to each ordering It is practical for experiments with a small number of treatments and participants Example- Six participants who are receiving 3 levels of an independent variable  Basic Control Techniques Subjects Treatment Order 1 1, 2, 3 2 1, 3, 2 3 2, 1, 3 4 2, 3, 1 5 3, 1, 2 6 3, 2, 1  Basic Control Techniques Partial Balancing Subjects Treatment Order 1,2,3,4 1, 2, 3 5,6,7,8 1, 3, 2 9,10,11,12 2, 1, 3 13,14,15,16 2, 3, 1 17,18,19,20 3, 1, 2 21,22,23,24 3, 2, 1 Controlling Participant effects Controlling Participant effects 1. Deception Participants think that the experiment is studying one thing when in fact it is studying something else The experimenter provides participants with a hypothesis that is unrelated to the real hypothesis E.g.- Milgram’s obedience experiment, Asch’s conformity experiment Controlling Participant effects 2. Single blind technique Participants do not know to which group they have been assigned They may know about the goal of the experiment, but do not know which group they are in Controlling Participant effects 3. Test Unwitting participants Participants would not know that they are being observed for an experiment They will not be aware that they are in a study and will not alter their behaviour E.g- observing consumer behaviour in a supermarket using a hidden camera Controlling Experimenter Effects  Controlling Experimenter effects 1. Double Blind technique Neither the experimenter nor the participants is aware of the treatment administered to the participants Keeps the experimenter from unconsciously influencing participants Someone else administers the treatment (e.g. pills) so the experimenter does not know who was administered what  Controlling Experimenter Effects 2. Use well-trained experimenters Use well-trained experimenters in order to control experimenter effects Train experimenters to behave consistently with all participants irrespective of the group they are in  Controlling Experimenter Effects 3. Control of recording errors Misrecording of data can be minimized if the observer remains aware of the necessity to making careful observations in order to obtain accurate data Multiple observers or data recorders could also be used  Controlling Experimenter Effects 4. Consistency of instructions Where possible instructions given to participants can be automate as well as the recording of their responses for consistency 5.Controlling experimenter attributes Use the same experimenter in all the conditions PYSC 224: Experimental Psychology Lecture 5 True Experimental Designs  True experimental research designs Two basic elements are necessary in an experimental design ❑ a control group to serve as a standard of comparison ❑random assignment of participants to groups to ensure they are equated Types of True Experimental designs True Experimental designs include: ❑ 1. Pretest-Posttest Design ❑ 2. Posttest-Only Design ❑ a. Between-Participants designs ❑ b. Within-Participants designs  Pretest-Posttest design A researcher ❑first measures the dependent variable (pretest) ❑administers the independent variable to the experimental group and then ❑measures the dependent variable again (posttest) ❑*Random assignment to groups  Pretest-Posttest design Pretest: Measure Administer Posttest: Measure Experimental Dependent Independent Dependent R Group Variable Variable Variable Weight Exercise Weight Participants R No Posttest: Measure. Control Pretest: Measure Group Independent Dependent Dependent Variable Variable Variable No Exercise Weight Weight  Pretest-Posttest design Extraneous variables, history and maturation variables are controlled Any difference produced in the experimental group will also be produced in the control group  Posttest-only design Independent variable is administered to only the experimental group Dependent variable measures in both the experimental and control groups Post-test scores of the two groups are compared to assess the influence of the independent variable  Posttest-only design Measure Experimental Administer R Dependent Variable Group Independent Variable Participants. R No Independent Measure Control Variable Dependent Variable Group  Posttest-only design The exact structure of a final posttest-only design depends on several factors 1. The number of independent variables involved in the experiment Whether one or more independent variables are being administered Example- The effect of alcohol on recall will involves only one independent variable  Posttest-only design 2. The number of levels of variation of each independent variable How many levels will the experimenter have Example, exercise will there be 2 levels, 3 levels etc.  Posttest-only design 3. Whether the same or different participants are to be tested in each condition Example- The effect of exercise on weight lose with three levels of exercise ,15 mins, 30 mins and 60 mins Administer all 3 conditions to just one group of participants, or to three different groups of participants  Posttest-only design Same participants- the posttest-only design is labelled a within-participants design Different participants- the posttest only design is typically labelled a between- participant design  Posttest-only design 1. Between-participants design ❑Two group between participant design ❑a. Simple randomised participants design ❑b. Factorial design 2. Within-participants design Between-participant Posttest-Only Design Different groups of participants are tested Participants in the experimental group are different from those in the control group They are randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups  Between-participant Posttest-Only Design An experimenter can investigate ` a. Only one independent variable on two level- presence vs. absence variation b. Different levels of one independent variable or c. Different types of independent variables can also be administered Between-participant Posttest-Only Design Different group of participants are tested, thus, the sequencing effect does not occur Also, participants are randomly assigned to the various groups so the groups are equated Thus, participant variables that may interfere with the effect of the independent variables are controlled Between-participant Posttest-Only Design Different types of between-participants designs ❑1. Two group between participant design ❑2. Simple randomized design/ Random participants design ❑3. Factorial design  Two group between participant design Measure Experimental Administer R Dependent Variable Group Independent Variable Participants. R Control No Independent Measure Variable Dependent Variable Group  Simple randomized participants design The influence of several levels of variation of the independent variable is investigated Between-participant design is extended to include more than one level of the independent variable Varying amounts of an independent variable is given to different groups of participants Random assignment of participants  Simple randomized participants design Example- the effect of Colour on taste perception A single independent variable with more than 2 levels Three (3) different experimental groups receiving different levels of exercise and one control group  Simple randomized participants design Effect of feedback on performance Group 1 No Feedback Group 2 Negative feedback Group 3 Positive Feedback Group 4 Sandwich Feedback Simple randomized participants design Example 1 Control Group No practice Exptal Grp 1 20 mins. Exptal Grp 2 40 mins. Exptal Grp 3 60 mins.  Factorial Design Sometimes psychological process may have several causes that interact with each other Factorial design- a researcher studies two or more independent variables at a time Determine their independent and interactive effect Thus, several hypotheses can be test at the same time  Factorial Design Example- The effect of diet and exercise on weight The effect of practice and interference on performance The effect of Intelligence Quotient (I.Q.) and test anxiety on test performance All of the possible combinations of selected values of each variable can be tested  Factorial Design Exercise Diet Walking Aerobics Combination (W & A) Normal NW NA NC Healthy HW HA HC  Factorial Design Interference Practice Low Moderate High Short (10m) SL SM SH Mod (20m) ML MM MH Long (30m) LL LM LH  Factorial Design Example- The effect of Belief and Food type on emotional response ❑Beliefs = 2 levels ❑Food type = 3 levels  Factorial Design Food type Food High Fat High Fat Low Belief Savoury Sweet Calorie Rational R-HFSV R-HFSW R-LC Irrational IR-HFSV IR-HFSW IR-LC  Factorial Design Types of factorial design 1. Between participant factorial design 2. Within participant factorial design 3. Mixed factorial design  Factorial Design In a factorial design, two effects are investigated ❑Main effect ❑Interaction effect 1. Main effect- the influence of one independent variable on the dependent variable  Factorial Design Exercise Diet Walking Aerobics Combination (W & A) Normal NW NA NC Healthy HW HA HC  Factorial Design Example- the effect of Belief alone or food alone on emotional response Effect of the following on emotional response Rational and irrational belief High fat savoury, high fat sweet, and low calorie Effect of the following on weight Normal and healthy diet Walking, aerobics and combination  Factorial Design 2. Interaction effect- the different variable Example- levels of the two independent variables interacting to affect the dependent How will participants’ eating of a normal or healthy diet combined with the various forms of exercise, affect their weight etc. Thus, 6 possible combinations of the two independent variables or 6 interactional effects can be tested  Factorial Design Exercise Diet Walking Aerobics Combination (W & A) Normal NW NA NC Healthy HW HA HC  Factorial Design Advantage- the experimenter can examine more than one hypothesis at the same time Interactive effects can be studied Economical- in terms of the number of participants to be tested and the amount of effort that the experimenter would expend The researcher can control variable that are potentially confounding  Within-participant Posttest-only Design The same participants participate in all the experimental conditions The same participants are assessed repeatedly on the dependent variable in all the treatment groups Also called the repeated measures design, because the same participants are measured repeatedly  Within-participant Posttest-only Design Example- Effect of Food type on emotional response or Effect of belief on emotional response The experimenter will have only 1 group Or only one group will be primed with both rational and irrational beliefs  Within-participant Posttest-only Design Participants Food type 1 Food type 2 Food type3 P1 HFSAV HFSW LC P2 HFSAV HFSW LC P3 HFSAV HFSW LC P4 HFSAV HFSW LC P5 HFSAV HFSW LC ….P36 HFSAV HFSW LC  Within-participant Posttest-only Design Participants Treatment 1 Treatment 2 Treatment 3 P1 10 mins 20 mins 30 mins P2 10 mins 20 mins 30 mins P3 10 mins 20 mins 30 mins P4 10 mins 20 mins 30 mins P5 10 mins 20 mins 30 mins ….P36 10 mins 20 mins 30 mins Within-participant Posttest-only Design Treatment 1 Treatment 2 Treatment 3 10 mins 20 mins 30 mins P1 P1 P1 P2 P2 P2 P3 P3 P3 P4 P4 P4 P5 P5 P5 ….P36 ….P36 ….P36 Same participants for all conditions  Within-participant Posttest only Design Advantage- The researcher need not worry about creating equivalence among the participants The same participants are tested in all the treatment conditions Fewer participants are needed because the same participants are tested repeatedly  Within-participant Posttest only Design Major problem- Sequencing effect as a result of the different conditions presented in a particular sequence Sequencing effect is made up of ❑1. Order effect ❑2. Carryover effect Within-participant Posttest only Design Examples of order effect are order effects associated with the passage of time which may include: ❑a. practice effect- an improvement in performance as a result of repeated practice with a task ❑b. fatigue effect- a deterioration in performance as participants become bored, tired or distracted  Within-participant Posttest only Design Carryover effect occur when a particular treatment changes the behaviour observed in the subsequent treatment The previous treatment has an effect on the participants and this effect is carried over into the next treatment Example- Experiment involving the administration of alcohol Within-participant Posttest only Design Disadvantage- More demanding on the participants because they may become tired or bored Also, it may be difficult to find participants who are willing to take part PYSC 224: Experimental Psychology Lecture 6 Quasi Experiments  Quasi Experiment Quasi experiment- ‘an experiment that does not meet all the requirements necessary for controlling the influence of extraneous variable’ (Christensen, 2007, p. 330) Participant variables such as age, sex, etc. cannot be experimentally manipulated Participants cannot be randomly assigned to a particular condition Instead they are exposed to a condition because they already qualify for that condition  Quasi Experiment The experimenter can only select instances that satisfy different categories and study them Uses natural manipulations rather than manipulations by the researcher ‘Manipulation’ could be naturally occurring attribute or events such as ethnic group, age, sex, intelligence etc.  Quasi Experiment Sometimes called ‘ex post facto’ or ‘after the fact’ experiments The experiment is conducted after the groups have been formed The inability to control confounding variables reduces the internal validity of a quasi experiment but does not make it invalid Quasi Experimental Designs  Quasi Experimental Designs Two types of quasi experimental designs ❑1. Non-equivalent control group design ❑2. Non-equivalent Pretest-posttest design Non-equivalent control group design The performance of an experimental group is compared with that of a non-equivalent control group There is no random assignment of subjects thus, the groups are not equivalent Non-equivalent control group design Thus, difference between the groups becomes a confounding variable This provides an alternative explanation for the results obtained Testing non-equivalent groups of subjects creates selection difference Non-equivalent control group design Experimental Independent Measure Group Variable Dependent Variable Lottery Non-equivalent No Measure Control Independent Dependent Variable Group Variable Non-equivalent control group design Example-The effect of stress management on hypertensive patients An experimenter may recruit ‘willing’ hypertensive patients who serve as the experimental group and are administered stress management The experimenter later recruits more hypertensive patients to serve as the control group  Non-equivalent control group design Thus, the two groups are not equated Differences found between the two groups, may be as a result of the stress management or difference between the two groups This design is similar to the true experiment posttest-only Non-equivalent pretest- posttest design An experimental and control group are pretested and posttested However, the two groups are not equivalent Differences between the groups, may be as a result of the initial difference or the effect of the independent variable Non-equivalent pretest- posttest design Pretest: Administer Posttest: Measure Experimental Measure Independent Dependent Variable Group Dependent Variable Variable Non-equivalent Pretest: No Posttest: Measure Control Measure Independent Dependent Variable Group Dependent Variable Variable Comparing Quasi Experiments and True Experiments True Experiments and Quasi Experiments 1. Major difference- random assignment of participant to experimental groups in true experiments but not quasi experiments 2. Experimenter manipulates variables in true experiments but observes categories of participants in quasi experiments True Experiments and Quasi Experiments 3. True experiments- Control permits the establishment of cause effect relationship 4. Quasi experiment- cannot be determined whether difference in behaviour is caused by the independent variable or the difference between the two groups Generally, true experiments are preferred to a quasi experiment Faulty Experimental Designs  Faulty Experiment Faulty experimental designs usually do not have a control group and sometimes do not include a pretest There is internal invalidity as a result of not minimizing extraneous variables Two types of faulty research designs ❑1. One group posttest-only design ❑2. One group pretest-posttest design One Group Posttest-only design An experimental group is administered the independent variable and then tested on the dependent variable There is no comparison group or pretest measure At a minimum, participants should be pretested Also, an equivalent control group must be included One Group Posttest-only design Experimental Independent Posttest: Group Variable Measure Dependent (listen to Variable music) (Mood) One-Group Pretest-Posttest design The effect of an independent variable is inferred from the pretest-posttest differences in a single group This design is faulty because it does not take into account extraneous variables such as history, maturation, etc. Also, there is no control group to compare the experimental group with  Pretest-Posttest design Experimental Pretest: Administer Posttest: Group Measure Independent Measure Dependent Variable Dependent Variable Variable PYSC 224: Experimental Psychology Lecture 7 Non-Experimental Research Methods Descriptive research methodology According to Heiman (1995) descriptive methods are “used to ❑test hypotheses that a predicted relationship exist ❑describe a behaviour or subject ❑discover relationships and ❑determine to predict behaviour” (p.49) Descriptive research methodology It involves studying people as they lead their lives in order to describe their behaviour and mental processes Variables of interest are not manipulate No external variables are introduced Instead, behaviour and relationships are observed without any influences It therefore does not try to find out cause–and- effect relationships Why Descriptive research methodology? This method is used in cases where The researcher cannot manipulate the independent variable Studies where it is not practically possible to conduct experiments Manipulation may cause physical or psychological harm to participants Studies that do not require an experimental approach Studies are aimed at gaining more information  Types of descriptive research methodology Case Study Archival Method Survey Method Correlational Research Method Naturalistic Observation Developmental Research Designs Qualitative Research  Case Study “A case study is typically done when a person has a “particularly rare unusual or noteworthy condition” (Cozby 2003 p. 96) It is an intensive description and analysis of a single individual or a setting such as an organization, school, neighbourhood, community or event Also called the clinical method and very much used by Clinical Psychologist  Case Study It focuses on all aspects of a single participant or selected group of individuals Information is obtained from a variety of sources such as interviews, documents, psychological test results, observations, archival records etc. Example- a description of a patient by a clinical psychologist Or a historical account of an event such as a presidential election that did not go well, etc.  Case Study Strengths Informational- provides an in-depth and complete description of a case or a situation It allows rare and unusual problems or events to be investigated, such as an unusual psychological disorder Once a researcher is able to obtain information about a ‘case’, he can develop ideas and hypothesis for further testing  Case Study Weaknesses It does not provide a control group for comparison A single case may be misleading or unrepresentative and therefore the inability to generalize findings The researcher rely on peoples memories of their past experiences which may not be trustworthy because of distortions in memory Researcher’s subjective feeling may influence the case study  Archival Method This involves examining already existing records This could be historical accounts of events or any archival information in a written format E.g. court records, published research articles, police crime reports, records from schools, government agencies, hospitals etc. A researcher gains access to the archived materials to help answer the research question No live participant is tested in archival studies  Archival Method Strengths It allows access to phenomena that would otherwise be unobservable Example- investigating the successes of past presidents Weaknesses The accuracy and appropriateness of the data depends entirely on the people who created the records  Archival Method The researcher conducts the study using data that he/she had no part in collecting Most of such data are collected for non-scientific reasons, and biases may have occurred during data collection Records of interest may not be accessible or may be unavailable to the general public Example- GTV records  Survey Method Collecting standardized information by administering questionnaires or interviewing a representative sample This method is used to obtain a limited amount of information from a large group of individuals (Kantowitz et al., 2015) A group of people are asked a series of carefully worded questions  Survey Method Used to explore their characteristic, attitudes, opinions, beliefs, demographics or other behaviour in a natural setting Survey methods are used commonly in some area of psychology than others Eg. in the areas of Industrial and organisational psychology, clinical, social, and educational psychology (Kantowitz et al., 2015) However, it is almost never used in the area of cognitive psychology or psychophysics (Kantowitz et al., 2015)  Survey Method Strengths Surveys can be used to predict behaviour Information can be obtained from a large number of people A great deal of information can be gathered in a relatively short period of time  Survey Method Weaknesses It is important to obtain a representative sample, but this may be difficult People may give responses that may not be true or may be inaccurate  Types of Survey Mail survey Telephone survey Group administration Face-to-face interview Internet survey  Mail Survey The researcher mails the questionnaire to the participants to complete and mail back Most useful when a researcher needs to use a larger sample and/ the questionnaire is lengthy (Heimen 1995) A problem with this method is the low “return rate”  Telephone Survey The researcher reads out the questions over the phone and the participants answer Response rate is higher than the mail survey It can be time consuming when there is only one interviewer Clarity of speech is necessary as well as a good opening statement  Group Administration Administrating a questionnaire to a large group of individuals at one time Participants may not treat the questionnaire with the seriousness Participants may not have the sense of confidentiality and this may affect their response Some participants may feel compelled or pressured to participate  Face-to-Face Interviews A face-to-face interaction with participant A structured interviews and/ unstructured interviews could be used Structured interviews are not flexible, thus, important information may not be captured Unstructured interview the researcher gains more information but it is difficult to code and analyse responses  Internet survey The researcher posts the questionnaire on the internet and respondents answer them electronically Open-ended and/ close-ended questions can be posted Or the researcher solicits for potential respondents on the internet and those who express interest are sent questionnaires The researcher can reach a large number of potential participants e.g. SurveyMonkey.com PYSC 224: Experimental Psychology Lecture 8 Non-Experimental Research Methods  Correlational study Used to assess and specify the relationship between two existing traits, behaviours or events Measuring two or more variables and using a statistical technique to determine the degree of relationship that exist between them This relationship is called correlation coefficient Three types of correlations exist  Correlational study Positive correlation- an increase/ decrease in the measure of one variable leads to an increase/ decrease in the other variable Negative correlation- an increase in one variable leads to a decrease in the other variable Zero correlation- there is no relationship between the two variables at all, one variable cannot help in predicting the other  Correlational study FIBQ Subscales Mean SD 1 2 3 4 1- Demand for success 2.89 0.82 _ belief 2.11 2- Self reproach belief 0.89.40** _ 3- Need for fairness belief 2.88 0.90.31**.29** _ 4- Desire for success belief 3.79 0.70.42**.13.31** _  Correlational study Strengths It demonstrates the relationship that exist between two variables It allows predictions to be made One can also determine whether the relationship is positive or negative and the magnitude of it  Correlational study Weaknesses Cause-effect relationship cannot be established Sometimes a relationship found may be coincidental  Naturalistic Observation Participants are observed in their natural environments without controlling or manipulating variables Examples- observing children in a day care centre, Christmas shoppers in a mall, students in a lecture room or an examination hall, patients at the clinic, animals and their infants etc. The aim is to observe participants as they behave naturally but this is not always possible  Naturalistic Observation When participants are aware that they are being observed, it may cause a change in their behaviour, referred to as observer effect Observer effect can be minimized by concealing the observer, using hidden cameras, or unobtrusive observations E.g.- habituate participants to your presence when using a video recorder, i.e. you let them get used to you before beginning observations  Naturalistic Observation Strengths Gives insight into how behaviour occurs in a real world Unobtrusive observations allows for the recording of ‘natural behaviours’, not tainted by any artificial laboratory setting Thus, well conducted naturalistic observations have extremely highly external validity  Naturalistic Observation Weaknesses It can be time consuming and expensive Sometimes getting the natural habitat of participants may mean travelling long distances. E.g. observing rural people or animals in their habitat Observer bias- descriptions of behaviour are highly susceptible to experimenter expectations Developmental Research Designs Involves evaluating changes in behaviour that take place over time Thus, the major variable is age Developmental psychologist often study age-related changes in individuals Example- Language development or cognitive development in children  Developmental Research Designs Two commonly used types are ❑Cross-sectional study ❑Longitudinal study  Cross-Sectional Study Participants of different ages are observed The researcher takes a cross-section of the population, by selecting persons of different ages, and tests them at only one point in time Example- Investigating how intelligence varies with age by testing participants aged 5, 10, 15 and 20 years old to assess age-related changes in behaviour  Cross-Sectional Study Strength It can be conducted quickly and easily All age groups of interest can be tested at the same time Weakness Participants who are tested are of different cohorts which can result in generational or cohort effect due to differences in subject history  Cross-Sectional Study Example- studying participants from 25, 45, 65 and 75 years groups The difference in age which the researcher studies are confounded by differences in subject history Thus, cross-sectional designs are generally considered less effective than longitudinal studies  Longitudinal Study A single group of participants is followed over a period of time Measured repeatedly at selected time intervals to note changes that occur over time in the specified characteristics- e.g. breastfeeding effects Example- giving an intelligence test to participants at 5 years intervals over a 30 year span  Longitudinal Study Strengths There is no cohort effect as participants are of the same cohort and thus will have the same background Participants variables are kept reasonably constant between the conditions Permits the researcher to see developmental changes as it occurs over time E.g.- how language development progresses  Longitudinal Study Weaknesses Cross-generational effects can occur Conclusions from a particular generation may not apply to another generation Society and culture are constantly changing so a longitudinal study that is done over a long period of time may not generalize well to future generations E.g.- Finding from a study conducted in 1970 to 1980 on the special bond between a mother and a child  Longitudinal Study Carryover effect It can be time consuming as one group of subjects are studied for a long period of time Subject mortality can also occur- when the study is over a long period of time  Qualitative Research “An inquiry process of understanding a social or human problem based on building a complex, holistic picture formed with words reporting detailed views of informants and conducted in a natural setting” (Cresswell, 1994) “Any type of research that produces findings not arrived at by statistical procedures or other means of quantification” (Strauss and Corbin, 1998, pp.10)  Qualitative Research It is used to: Better understand any phenomenon on which little is known Gain new perspectives on things about which much is already known Or to gain more in-depth information that may be difficult to convey quantitatively  Qualitative Research Understand behaviour in a natural setting Understand a phenomenon from the perspective of the research participant Understand the meanings people give to their experience(Strauss & Corbin, 1990) Help us to understand the world in which we live and why things are the way they are  Qualitative Research Creswell (1994) categorises it into five major traditions The Biography Case-study Ethnography Grounded theory Phenomenology (e.g. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) approach) PYSC 224: Experimental Psychology Lecture 9 Proposal and Research Reports writing How to do a Literature Search  Literature Search Literature search is a fundamental element of any research work It is a systematic and detailed search of all types of published information to obtain relevant information on a specific topic To do a good research do a thorough review A thorough review of academic literature will yield a successful research project  Literature Search Sources of information include academic texts, journals long essays, dissertation/ thesis Others- Newspapers, archived information, images, conference proceedings, audio and video recordings etc. However, journals are the main source of information for detailed literature searches for your research project  Why do a Literature Search Review already existing information- theories, current findings, critical opinions To form a bases (justification) for your own research Knowing what has been done prevents unnecessary duplication To enable you compared your research findings with existing literature  Doing Literature Search 1. Do some background reading- Textbooks, journal articles and other materials 2. Use your title to identify search terms Identify as many key terminology associated with the topic as possible E.g. Important authors, theories/concepts, key findings, words in your title etc. Eg.- The effect of sight on perception of taste “Can the colour of a drink affect a person’s perception of its taste?  Literature Search 3. Identify the resources to search No one single source of information will contain all the information you need From University of Ghana Balme library website, you can access many different online resources covering different subject areas Different types of databases- E.g. JSTOR, Medline, CINAHL, EBSCOhost, Project Muse, Science Direct, etc.  Literature Search 4. Search using the following search techniques Avoid using ‘simple’ or ‘basic’ search option Always use the advanced search a) Databases of journal articles- insert asterisk (*) at the end of the ‘stem’ of a word to automatically search for all endings for that word stem Eg. Psychology, Behaviour, etc.  Literature Search b) Link terms together with either the connecting word ‘and’ or the connecting word ‘or’ ‘and’ will narrow the search to find only results that contain both terms ‘or’ will broaden the search to find any results that contain either or both terms  Literature Search Example- cancer and patients- This will find only the results that contain both the term cancer and the term patients It would not find any results that just refer to cancer on its own or just refer to patients without any mention of cancer Example- cancer or patients will find any results that just mentions cancer, any results that just mentions patients AND any results that mention both cancer and patients  Literature Search c) Variant spellings- Databases will only match on the specific word entered ⁻ Use or between the two different spellings to find either d) Finding phrases- If your search terms is a phrase (string of words), insert your search terms in quotation marks “…,E.g. “cancer patients” This way the words always appear immediately next to each other in the search results e) Search current and up to date material- you can limit your search to only articles published within a certain period  Literature Search 5. Organise your results Organise the materials you find in order of priority You can create folders according to your core materials and other materials Where core or important references are not full text you can request Balme library to order the full paper  Writing a Research Proposal A proposal outlines how a researcher intends to conduct a study It includes: Title Abstract/ executive summary( optional) Introduction (aims) Literature review (hypotheses) Proposed method (Participants, Instruments / Materials, design, procedure, Proposed analysis Expected outcome Writing a Research Report  Title This summarizes the main idea of the research It should inform readers about the variables and relationship being studied, so one can tell what the whole study is about Avoid words that will not serve any useful purpose  Title An Experimental Study of the Effect of Exercise on the weight of Obese individuals Make the title eye catching, otherwise readers may skip it According to the APA Publications Manual (2005), the recommended title length for any title is 10 to 12 words Names of Author(s) & Affiliation Have name of the author(s) and the institution(s) where the study was conducted, immediately below the title The preferred form is to list first names, middle initial and last name with no titles and degrees Affiliation is the organizations that provided the facilities or support for the research- usually a University, College, or an Institute A manuscript for publication will include the corresponding author’s name and contact (email/ full address)  Abstract This is a comprehensive summary of the whole research report It introduces the report, allowing readers to decide whether the report appears relevant to their own interests It should include a sentence or two about each of the four main sections of the whole report, and should not be more than 120 words Word count may vary from journal to journal- some may be 200, 250, 300 or 350 words etc.  Introduction Usually begins with a description of what is already known about the phenomenon under study (background information) and a statement of purpose of the study It is funnel shaped- it is broad at the beginning and narrow at the end, leading into a statement of the variables to be investigated Then, follows the aims and relevance of the study  Introduction Also includes a literature review- a description of past research and theory that are directly related to the present study The final part states the rationale for the study and the hypotheses to be tested Note- The literature review may be separated from the introduction for students’ reports but not manuscripts unless the latter specifies so  Method The second section of the report and the heart of the report (McBurney, 2001) It tells the reader exactly how the study was conducted It allows the reader to replicate the study It has the following subsections-  a. Participants or Subjects Describes the participates/ subjects that were tested Human participants- who they were, how many were tested, their demographic variables and how they were selected, assignment to groups, number who did not complete the study etc. Animals subjects-mention species, the name of the supplier and his/her location etc.  b. Materials or Apparatus This describes the materials or apparatus used, what they were used to test and why they were used For example, a memory drum, a one-way mirror, a biofeedback machine, a questionnaire, a lie detector, etc. If you used any equipment, provide its name, model, the name of the manufacturer etc.  c. Design State the research method used If it is an experiment, you state the number of independent variables used and their levels and the dependent variables measured (2 x 3 factorial design) State whether it is a repeated measures design etc. Also state which variables were randomized, which were counterbalanced etc.  d. Procedure A step-by-step account of what both the experimenter and participant did during the study Procedures used to obtain informed consent should also be reported Method used for debriefing should be described  Results Reports the data that was collected and how it was analysed (statistical test) and what the outcome of the analysis was Present the results (usually in past tense) without discussing your finding First, state which statistical test was used for the various hypotheses, then present any descriptive statistics, then present the inferential statistics  Discussion Interprets and evaluates the results obtained, and the implications of the results obtained It interprets what the results mean and relates it to the literature It also focuses on the theoretical contribution the study makes to existing knowledge Then outlines the similarities and difference between the findings and previous findings  Discussion First, you summarize the purpose of the study and the expected outcome Then report whether or not the results obtained are consistent with the expected outcomes (hypotheses) Then interpret the results, telling the reader what you think they mean If you did not obtain the expected results, discuss possible explanations  Discussion Discuss limitations or shortcomings of your study State any major and minor flaws in that could be corrected in a subsequent study Example, state why a result cannot be generalized  Discussion Also discuss implications of the research and practical applications Then outline the direction that future research can take End this section by providing a brief conclusion that sums up your main findings  Reference Provides an accurate and complete list of all the references cited in the report Do not omit any source cited or include any source that was not cited APA style- Presented in alphabetical order with the second and subsequent lines indented to the right Note that, the source of the information/ a journal may determine how a reference is written  Appendices This include copies of ethics approvals, sample of questionnaires used, list of stimulus words, instructions, etc. Might be appropriate when necessary material would be distracting in the main body of the report It is rarely provided in manuscripts submitted for publication For students’ reports such as long essay or dissertations you include appendices  APA referencing style You cannot do research without reading previous researches and reviewing what has been done in the past As we write out our proposals and/ final research report, we borrow ideas from other researchers Thus, in our write-ups, we need to acknowledge that obtained information from various sources  APA referencing style This is why we cite sources in our reports and reference the sources as well There are different referencing styles, APA- American Psychological Association style MLA- Modern Language Association style Chicago Harvard Vancouver Psychologist use the APA referencing style  APA referencing style The American Psychological Association style is most frequently used style in the social sciences, thus other disciplines use this style as well The 6th edition of the APA manual is thus the Citation Guide, that provides the general format for in-text (the body of the report) and the reference page as well There are different formats for referencing the different sources Thus, the source from which you obtain information will determine how you will write the reference  APA referencing style Types of Source How to cite a Book in APA How to cite a Journal Article in APA How to cite a Website in APA How to cite a Newspaper in APA How to cite a Magazine in APA  APA referencing style Types of Source How to cite a Film in APA How to cite an Interview in APA How to cite a Lecture in APA How to cite a TV Show / Radio Broadcast in APA How to cite an Encyclopedia in APA How to cite a Photograph in APA  APA referencing style Referencing books Aiken, L. S. & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple Regression: Testing and Interpreting Interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Christensen, B.L. (2007). Experimental Methodology (10th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioural Sciences (2nded). Hillsdale, NJ:Eribaum Denmark, F. L & Paludi, M. (2008). Psychology of Women: Hand Book of Issues and Theories (2nd ed). USA: Praeger Publications. Myers, A., & Hansen, C. (2012). Experimental Psychology (7th Ed.). Boston: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning Inc.  APA referencing style Referencing book chapter Haybron, D. M. (2008). Philosophy and the Science of Subjective Well-Being. In M. Eid & R. J. Larsen (Eds.), The Science of Subjective Well-Being (pp. 17-43). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Reference Edited book Cooke, D. J., & Philip, L. (2001). To treat or not to treat? An empirical perspective. In C.R. Hollin (Ed.), Handbook of offender assessment and treatment (pp. 3-15). Chichester: Wiley. Kestly, T. (2010). Group sandplay in elementary schools. In A. A. Drewes, & C. E. Shaefer (Eds.), School-based play therapy (2nd ed., pp. 257-282). Hoboken, NJ: John Wileys & Sons.  APA referencing style Referencing & Citing journal articles One Author Goldberg, L. R. (1992). The development of markers for the big-five factor structure. Psychological Assessment, 4(1), 26-42. In text citation: (Goldberg, 1992) or Goldberg (1992) Two Authors Crossan, M. M. & Apaydin, M. (2010). A multi-dimensional framework of organizational innovation: A systematic review of literature. Journal of Management Studies, 47(6), 1154-1191. In text citation: (Crossan & Apaydin, 2010) or Crossan & Apaydin, (2010)  APA referencing style Referencing & Citing journal articles Three Author Antonakis, J., Avolio, B. J. & Sivasubramaniam, N. (2003). Context and leadership: an examination of the nine-factorful range leadership theory using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. The Leadership Quarterly, 14, 261-295. In text citation for the first time: (Antonakis, Avolio & Sivasubramaniam, 2003) or Antonakis, Avolio & Sivasubramaniam (2003) Subsequent citations: (Antonakis et al., 2003) or Antonakis et al., (2003)  APA referencing style Referencing & Citing journal articles Five Authors Boehm, S., Schlenk, E. A., Funnell, M. M., Powers H., & Ronis, D. L. (1997). Predictors of adherence to nutrition recommendations in people with non- insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Educator, 23(2), 157-165. In text citation for the first time: (Boehm, Schlenk, Funnell, Powers & Ronis, 1997) Subsequent citations: (Boehm et al., 1997) or Boehm et al., (1997)  APA referencing style Referencing & Citing journal articles Six or more Authors Davies, M. J., Heller, S., Skinner, T. C., Campbell, M. J., Carey, M. E., & Cradock, S. (2008). Effectiveness of the diabetes education and self- management for ongoing and newly diagnosed (DESMOND) programme for people with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes: Cluster randomised controlled trial. British Medical Journal, 336, 491-495. In text citation for the first time and Subsequent citations : (Davies et al., 2008) or Davies et al., (2008) Cite only the surname of the first author followed by et al., and the year.  APA referencing style Referencing & Citing journal articles Eight or more Authors Wolchik, S. A., West, S. G., Sandler, I. N., Tein, J., Coatsworth, D., Lengua, L.,... Griffin, W. A. (2000). An experimental evaluation of theory-based mother and mother-child programs for children of divorce. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 843–856. In text citation for the first time and Subsequent citations : (Davies et al., 2008) or Wolchik et al., (2000) Cite only the surname of the first author followed by et al., and the year.  APA referencing style Referencing Newspaper Oblayo, G. (2011, June 23). The plight of Ghana. Graphic, p. 17. In-text citation: (Oblayo, 2011) or Oblayo, (2011) Referencing Newspaper (online) Abekah, E. (2015, April 4). Why students fail in Maths. The Ghanaian Times. Retrieved from http://www.stuff.co.nz/ Mathematics/grades/6038621/  APA referencing style Referencing oral report Smith, M. B. (1989, August 12). Interview by C. A. Kieser [Tape recording]. President’s Oral History Project, American Psychological Association. APA Archives, Washignton, DC Referencing Film Preston, G. (Director/Producer). (2010). Home by Christmas [Motion picture]. New Zealand: Gaylene Preston Production. PYSC 224: Experimental Psychology Lecture 10 Ethics in psychological research  Ethics in psychological research Research ethics are “a set of guidelines to assist the experimenter in conducting ethical research” (Christensen 2007, p.128) A psychologist must: conduct a study in an ethical manner, without causing harm to human participant Ensure that the dignity and welfare of participants are maintained Ensure research is conducted according to the APA regulations and standards Ethics in psychological research Ethical principles in the conduct of research with human participants was first published in 1953 (APA, 1953) Revised overtime and expanded to include emerging issues, to reflect other areas of research that have emerged such as biomedical research (Christensen, 2007) Section 8 of the APA code of ethics 2002, specifies ethical concerns governing research and publication  Ethical Principles Of Psychologists And Code Of Conduct Adopted August 21, 2002 and made effective June 1, 2003 In 2010 amendments were made to the “Introduction and Applicability” section and Standards 1.02 and 1.03- effective June 1, 2010 In 2016 amendment were again made to the Standard 3.04 This was adopted August 3, 2016 and made effective January 1, 2017  Ethical Principles Of Psychologists And Code Of Conduct This contains the A. General Principles B. Ethical Standards General principles list 5 principles, A to E These discuss Beneficence and Nonmaleficence, Fidelity and Responsibility, Integrity, Justice and Respect for People’s and Rights and Dignity  Ethical Principles Of Psychologists And Code Of Conduct Ethical Standards 1. Resolving Ethical Issues 2. Competence 3. Human Relations 4. Privacy and Confidentiality 5. Advertising and Other Public Statements  Ethical Principles Of Psychologists And Code Of Conduct Ethical Standards 6. Record Keeping and Fees 7. Education and Training 8. Research and Publication 9. Assessment 10. Therapy  8. Research and Publication 8.01 Institutional Approval 8.02 Informed Consent to Research 8.03 Informed Consent for Recording Voices and Images in Research 8.04 Client/Patient, Student, and Subordinate Research Participants 8.05 Dispensing With Informed Consent for Research  8. Research and Publication 8.06 Offering Inducements for Research Participation 8.07 Deception in Research 8.08 Debriefing 8.09 Humane Care and Use of Animals in Research 8.10 Reporting Research Results  8. Research and Publication 8.11 Plagiarism 8.12 Publication Credit 8.13 Duplicate Publication of Data 8.14 Sharing Research Data for Verification 8.15 Reviewers  8. Research and Publication 8.01 Institutional Approval When institutional approval is required, psychologists provide accurate information about their research proposals and obtain approval prior to conducting the re- search They conduct the research in accordance with the approved research protocol.  8. Research and Publication 8.02 Informed Consent to Research (a) When obtaining Informed Consent as, psychologists inform participants about (1) the purpose of the research, expected duration, and procedures; (2) their right to decline to participate and to withdraw from the research once participation has begun; (3) the foreseeable consequences of declining or withdrawing  8. Research and Publication (4) reasonably foreseeable factors that may be expected to influence their willingness to participate such as potential risks, discomfort, or adverse effects; (5) any prospective research benefits; (6) limits of confidentiality; (7) incentives for participation; and (8) whom to contact for questions about the research and research participants’ rights  8. Research and Publication (b) Psychologists conducting intervention research involving the use of experimental treatments clarify to participants at the outset of the research (1) the experimental nature of the treatment; (2) the services that will or will not be available to the control group(s) if appropriate; (3) the means by which assignment to treatment and control groups will be made;  8. Research and Publication 4) available treatment alternatives if an individual does not wish to participate in the research or wishes to withdraw once a study has begun; and (5) compensation for or monetary costs of participating including, if appropriate, whether reimbursement from the participant or a third-party payor will be sought  8. Research and Publication 8.03 Informed Consent for Recording Voices and Images in Research Psychologists obtain informed consent from research participants prior to recording their voices or images for data