PSYC 208 All Lectures PDF

PSYC 208 - ALL LECTURES LECTURE 1 - Introducing + Defining Happiness 1. Studying Psychology and Happiness Main Target of Study Transitioned from: Negative States & Psychopathology --> Human Flourishing, well-being, & happiness However, the presence of happiness do...

PSYC 208 - ALL LECTURES LECTURE 1 - Introducing + Defining Happiness 1. Studying Psychology and Happiness Main Target of Study Transitioned from: Negative States & Psychopathology --> Human Flourishing, well-being, & happiness However, the presence of happiness does not diminish the importance of studying negative states and illnesses such as depression, PTSD 1. HAPPINESS DEFINED (Greek Terms) HEDONIC: Simple: acquire pleasure, avoid pain Basic wants and needs Short-lived Extrinsic focused; reward and punishment Subjective ○ Presence of +ve ○ Presence of -ve emotion ○ How one feels about their life: are they happy? Can differ across individuals; what makes one happy may not apply to another --> Created by Aristippus, a student of Socrates Problematic man; had different philsophical views Main life goal = find pleasure EUDAIMONIC:  Aim in life is to strive to realize one's true nature (authenticity) and potential (diamon) Making the most of one's talents and capacities The pursuit of a virtuous and meaningful life ○ Outcome of this pursuit = Eudaimonia Overall definition of Happiness: A multidimensional, psychosocial construct that encompasses both the pursuit of what feels good, as well as thriving thriving in life while striving to realize one's full potential Both Hedonic and Eudaimonic criteria are both important in contributing to this definition! Lecture 2 - Personality & Happiness 1. What is Personality? Personality: The overall organization of a deeply ingrained enduring set of psychological characteristics that influence how we think, feel, and behave; all of which is influenced by our social environment Is complex, unique to each individual, and is seen by many to be "impossible" to study (but still important to!) 1. Defining Traits and States State: how you feel, think, and behave at this specific, defined moment Short-lived, temporary Trait: a relatively stable characteristic or quality that may represent a portion of one's personality  How you generally/typically feel, think, and behave across situations More so prominent, enduring Psychological characteristics = Traits "To feel proud is not the same as to be a proud person" Ex. Lia broke my watch. I'm angry (state) but I'm not an angry person (trait) 1. Approaches to Personality Development 1. Interactionist Approach Personality is driven by one's behaviour, traits, and environment ○ Ie. Personality develops based on inherited traits and the external environment, driving our behaviour ○ All 3 factors are interdependent and influence each other Hollander's Principles:  One's personality and behaviour is made of: 1)Psychological Core The real you - remains constant and stable 2)Typical Response (based on traits) one's response in most situations; can be modified and learned; is predictable 3)Role related behaviour The dynamic and changeable surface of one's personality We behave depending on the situation 1. Trait Approach: OCEAN (the big 5) Individuals have certain traits that influence and predict their behaviour, that are considered relatively stable over time Openness, Conscientousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism  *humility was almost* added 1. Personality Research and Happiness (refer to Anglim, Mottus, Olaru) 1. What personality traits are more correlated to our happiness? 1. Emotional Stability (ie. low Neuroticism) 2. Conscientiousness 3. Extraversion 1. Are our personality traits set in stone over our lifespan? Two varying approaches: 1. Mottus et.al (2024) : happiness is consistent w/ personality traits across one's life 1. Less so based on circumstances/external environment  2. Yes! It is set in stone 3. Somewhat problematic approach 2. Olaru et. al (2023): examined whether associations b/w happiness and persnality traits differ across lifespan - found to stay similar, but regardless of age, personality traits continued to influence happiness 1. Scoring higher in any 1 of OCEAN as one ages ~ more happiness 2. Personality evolves over lifespan (NOT set in stone) 3. Happiness is malleable and can be attained 4. Ex. high openness = high curiousness, imagination = high happiness 1. Can we develop our happiness traits to boost our happiness? You cannot flip a switch on your personality (ex. go from introvert to extrovert) But! you can learn more about and understand your own traits to develop the best version of them :) 1. Perfectionism and Happiness Perfectionism = multidimensional personality trait characterized by very high performance standards, combined with overly critical self-evaluations Can be both negative and positive 1. 1. Evaluative Concerns Perfectionism 1. Negative social evaluation 2. Excessive Self Criticism 3. Concern over msitakes  4. Doubts about actions 5. Maladjustment behaviour (ex. drugs, alcohol, self harm, etc.) 1. Personal Standards Perfectionism 1. High performance standards 2. Self-oriented achievement striving 3. Adaptive functioning 4. More room for "go with the flow" 5. Better approach to happiness :) Takeaway: Self evaluation is important! Given your personality traits, how can you work towards the best version of them and yourself? Lecture 3 - Happiness Mind Games 4 Forms of Cognitive Biases Cognitive Bias: a systemic pattern of deviation from what we consider normal/rational when making judgements Subjective views that can distort thinking 1. Arrival Fallacy 1. Belief that achieving goals will lead to sustained + lasting happiness 1. This notion is not grounded in reality; happiness from achieving goals is often short-lived 2. A mix of anxiety is experienced leading up to happiness until goal is reached, however this cycle repeats as the individual strives to meet each new goal (and returns back to a baseline state of comfort/wanting to gain more) 3. Regardless of whether events are negative or positive, individual will always return to baseline level of happiness 1. Hedonic Adaptation: Hedonic adaptation, also known as the hedonic treadmill, is the tendency of people to return to a relatively stable level of happiness after major life events, whether positive or negative 1. Impact bias: Tendency for people to overestimate the length or intensity of future emotional states 1. Ex. after going through a bad-break up, you initially think it will be horrible forever (it won't!!)) 1. Reference Points and Bias 1. Bias in this case refers to one's reaction of a given outcome, perceiving it as either good or bad depending on the meaning they associate to the stimuli 2. Reference Points: a neutral value that individuals use to compare and evaluate potential outcomes, gains, or losses, essentially acting as a starting point for judging something relative to their current situation or perception 3. Ex. Olympic Medal Silver Medal Winners: instead of seeing it as incredible to be 2nd in the entire world, they are dissappointed in thinking they did not achieve gold (and could have pushed themselves a bit harder to do so) 1. 2nd best or 2nd loser? 2. Silver medalists die younger with this mentality 3. Bronze medalists are happier, as they just* make the podium (in between not making the podium vs. getting a medal  SIMULATION -> MEANING -> REFERENCE POINTS Josh Dueck - Sit skiier who became paralyzed waist down due to a ski accident Dr: "you're going to rock the world in a wheelchair" ○ Changed point of view Dueck maintained a positive outlook and kept skiing ○ Competed and won big in the Paralympics Takeaway: Dueck was able to reduce Implicit Bias by believing that his condition would not place a permanent barrier to his goals -bounced back from negative dips from baseline happiness by setting goals, and achieving them -represents a real- scenario of Hedonic Adaptation and Arrival Fallacy McNair (2023) More Money means More Happiness for most of us - here's when earning over $100k doesn't help Two contradicting findings: after $75,000/year, happiness plateaus VS happiness grows even beyond that amount -for most people, there is no limit and their happiness continues to increase past $75k (CONFIRMED ^^ happiness grows and even accelerates when people earn over $100k) -happiness plateaus as income increases above $100k for people who are already unhappy -unhappiness found to diminish as income increases, but not by much Self Compassion: practice of being kind, caring, and understanding towards oneself, especially when faced with perceived inadequacy, failure, or suffering being opened to and moved by one's own suffering Recognizing that one's experience is apart of a common human experience Taking a non-judgemental attitude to one's inadequacies, failures Intraindividual Approach : "we’re our own worst enemies"  ○ A focus on cultivating compassion and understanding towards oneself within the individual's own mind and experiences, essentially treating oneself with the same kindness and acceptance one might offer to a dear friend facing similar challenges ○ Acceptance of imperfections ○ Emphasizes the internal process of self-reflection and self-care rather than relying on external validation. Self Compassion ≠ Self Esteem High Self esteem may be correlated with downsides, such as narcissism and bullying behaviour Self compassion does not have these downsides; is purely positive Self Compassion Dimensions *each pair constantly interacts with each other to influence self compassion 1. Self-Kindness vs. Self-Judgement 1. Control sympathy to oneself vs. frustration over failure 2. Treating yourself with kindness instead of harsh self-criticism 2. Common Humanity vs. Isolation 1. "It's apart of the shared human experience" vs. "I'm the only person suffering" 3. Mindfulness vs. Over-Identification (ie. Rumination) 1. Being aware of your suffering without being consumed by negative feelings 2. A balanced approach to negative emotion 3. Resisting the tendency to suppress or over-exaggerate/over-identify 1. Self Compassion Skepticism Skepticisms: Self Compassion makes us…. 1. Weak 2. Selfish, self-centered 3. Undermines Motivation Reality: Self compassion makes us… 1. Strong More resilient, inc. post traumatic resilience, dec. PTSD 1. Care for others  Enhances relationship satisfaction, attractive traits, compassion to partners More Rizz! :D 1. Enhances our Motivation 1. Provides warmth, encouragement 2. Decreases procrastination, increases taking responsibility for actions 3. Positive approach to goals (for intrinsic reasons, self betterment) 4. Focus on the journey - not the outcome! Research Findings on Self Compassion Self acceptance + Compassion = Better Health, greater Happiness Less likely to be depressed, anxious; more likely to be happier and optimistic ARTICLES (Sappala, 2014) The Scientific Benefits of Self-Compassion Self criticism prevents us from achieving our goals;  ○ makes us weaker, more emotional, and less likely to learn in the face of failure Self compassion involves 3 things: ○ Self-Kindness ○ Common Humanity - making mistakes is intrinsically human! ○ Mindfulness - be mindful of your emotions and feelings without over-identifying with them Self Compassion is learnable, not being lazy; compassionate people can lack self-compassion as well ○ When one is motivated by self-compassion, failure is not a defeat, but a learning opportunity ○ Likely to improve performance after failure ○ Will maintain peace of mind, well-being ○ Leads to decreased stress; activates biological nurturance and "soothing system" Practices for boosting self compassion ○ Write yourself a letter ○ Write down self talk ○ Develop a self compassion mantra(easy to remember phrases) ○ Meditation  Tedtalk: Dare to Rewire your brain for self compassion - Weiyang Xie -shame is the driving force behind self-criticism, anxiety, low self-esteem -shame is not guilt -shame is almost always debilitating. But guilt can be positive -shame can reduce attention, increase impulsive behaviour, and lead to mental health issues Neural Pathways -brain is "elastic" - can rewire patterns -negative habitual thinking can be removed -high compassion: -higher emotional resilience, psychological well being , hear rate variability -lower depression, anxiety, cortisol -instead of punishment, cultivate curiosity! Psychology Today (Davis, 2021) - 6 Science-Based Self-Compassion Exercises 1. Write a Compassion Letter 2. Let Go of Negativity 3. Stand up to Your Inner Critic 4. Nix the Shoulds 5. Practice Loving-Kindness 6. Take a Self-Compassion Break 7. Forgive Yourself LECTURE 5: GLOBAL HAPPINESS REPORTS World Happiness Report: collective report by the UN on different nations' state of happiness to implement changes to public policy 190 member countries total, 100,000 participants/year Uses a single item survey Empirically driven reports to increase happiness **FINLAND HAS BEEN THE #1 HAPPIEST NATION IN THE WORLD FOR 7 YEARS STRAIGHT Top International Predictors of Happiness 1. Log GDP per capita 1. Purchasing Power 2. Gap b/w richest and poorest is smallest in Finland 3. Larger gap in equality = money matters a lot more = lower happiness 2. Social Support 3. Healthy Life Expectancy @ Birth 1. Universal healthcare 2. Low post-secondary expenses 4. Freedom to make life choices (Autonomy) 5. Generosity 1. Ex. Amount of money donated to Charity 6. Perceptions of Corruption 1. Trust in government and safety 2. Very little theft 3. Little government corruption *** People are happier living in countries where the equality of happiness is greater In Canada -largest age gap in happiness: younger individuals are way less happy than older individuals -may be due to less trust in government, high cost of living, uncertainties about future Blue Zones: locations where individuals are happiest and long living Top (Fab) 5 Blue Zones 1)Sardinia (Italy) 2)Ninchaya (Costa Rica) 3)Iccaria (Greece) 4)Loma Linda (USA) 5)Okinawa (Japan 83.8 years average lifespan; women live longest in Okinawa than anywhere else worldwide Note words below: Ikigai: life worth living HariHachibu: eating before reaching 80% fulness Moai: gathering of friends Blue Zone Principles: Article 1: Happiness is a Place b/w Too Little and Too Much Universal meals for children :) ○ Originally called "Playground Meals", dating back to 1942 ○ Finland also has the most family-friendly arrangements for work flexibility  Contrast to USA: only a third of 5-17 year olds have free school lunches, and have to be from families living at or below 130% poverty ○ Many children above this threshold are still malnourished ○ New York provides free lunch to all children ○ Increased risk of going hungry due to Covid More on Finland One of the lowest infant and child mortality rates in the world Crime rates are low and children are likely to make positive societal contributions Lowest rates of homelessness Have free-time residence in the countryside Schools don't have tuition fees Scored highest of any country amongst immigrants, but immigrants were not as happy as Finns themselves Accepted 40% of asylum seekers applying to live there Still racist towards Africans… Ensure that state institutions are of high quality, non-corrupt, able to deliver what they promise, and generous in taking care of citizens in various adversities”. Article #2: Young people's happiness has fallen sharply for Canada and US in global ranking -Canada has fallen, but younger people especially have fallen further down in happiness -top countries are Finland, Denmark, Iceland, Sweden -then Israel, Netherlands, Norway, Luxembourg, Switzerland, Australia -life satisfaction typically drops gradually from chidlhood to adolescence -happiness age gap narrowing in western europe, reversed in america; increased in sub-saharan africa -younger Canadians and Americans are still happier than young Australians and New Zealanders -Lithuania tops happiness list for people under 30 -Denmark happiest country for those 60 and older Other way around; people are happier as they get older (in the west) -opposite pattern in Europe -negative aspects from social media and economic inequality LECTURE 7: BETTER TOGETHER 1. The Harvard Study 1. Longest, in-depth study on human life ever conducted (still being ran): What's the #1 Predictor of Happiness? 2. Study initially included only young men (also from poor neighbourhoods/means) 3. Explored various factors, including career enjoyment, physical health, + other predictors of health 4. #1 Best Predictor of Happiness = close relationships with friends + family 1. Quality and nurturance of these relationships are key *If you want to make one choice today that will make you healthier and happier, pay attention to your connections with other people" 1. Combatting Loneliness (Liu et. al)  1. #1 way to combat loneliness = reach out and call a friend! 2. We underestimate how much our friends want to hear from us/ want to be checked on + reached out to 3. The more out of the blue the call is = the better the effect 4. Initiating contact after prolonged amount of time = still effective! 1. 5 for 5 Challenge Happiness and Social Connections at Work people are almost always willing to help out - brings them purpose! counts for both lending and receiving help; beneficial for our health People of both young and old ages experience stress @ work ○ Making friends = less stress! Individuals have easier time to lend help than to ask for help THE THREE TYPES OF FRIENDS  1. Of UTILITY - transactional 2. Of PLEASURE - fun 3. Of GOOD - close friends, eudaimonic happiness; sentimental character ***KEY IMAGE: ARTICLE 1: The Evolution of Social Connection as a Basic Human Need Social connection = a basic human need as important as food, water, shelter ○ Biologically rooted ○ Humans have evolved the need for social connection Numerous advantages to communicating and working together ○ Modern Day: Internet, modern medicine ○ Prehistoric day: fending off predators, protection, raise children, promote survival  Evolution naturally selected for more social connection over time Large brains! (Social Brain Hypothesis - PSYC 307) ○ Humans have large brains relative to body size ○ Big brain ~ ability to deal with complex social interactions/networks; cognitively demanding ○ Bigger group = bigger brain ○ *Developed big brains in order to connect Two brain networks that underlie social and non-social thinking ○ activated depending on whether we are engaged in a social or non-social task ○ Able to turn back on instantly when env't becomes social Brain's default mode = social! LONELINESS = a signaling mechanism ○ Warns us when our need for social connection is not met ○ Following isolation, people display increased midbrain activity when shown pictures of social activities Same brain activity when showing hungry individuals pictures of foods ○ Social Isolation triggers a "craving" response! ARTICLE 2: V. Murthy's Our Epidemic of Loneliness and Isolation Chapter 3 higher levels of social connectedness suggest better community outcomes, ranging from population health to community safety, resilience, prosperity, and representative government; while lower levels of social connectedness suggest worse outcomes in each of these areas Social Capital: the resources to which individuals and groups have access through their social networks ○ Umbrella for social support, social cohesion ***(rest of terms and definitions highlighted on the article) Areas wherein social connectedness brings about immediate benefits Pandemics Natural Hazards (e.g. earthquake, Tsunamis, hurricanes, etc.) Reduction of community violence Socioeconomic prosperity, reduction of unemployment Increased levels of civic engagement (ie. actions to address issues of public concern) ○ Ex. increased voting, social actions and advocacy Potential Negative Sides of Social Connection Participation in gangs, extremist groups Us vs. Them mentality  Distrust and rejection of outsiders Pressures to conform Exacerbating polarization Chapter 4: A National Strategy to Advance Social Connection Benefits of a National Strategy to Advance Social Connection Cultivating individual health and well-being across physical and mental health and educational and economic outcomes. This enables individuals to be happier, more prosperous, and to contribute more fully to society. Strengthening community health, safety, and prosperity by cultivating social cohesion and social capital within and across communities. This enables communities to overcome adversity and thrive. Building resilience for the next set of challenges such as natural hazards, pandemics, and safety threats. This enables society to withstand unanticipated crises through stronger recovery and resilience. Advancing civic engagement and representative government by fostering a more engaged citizenry. This enables policies and programs to better reflect the will of a community and its individuals. LECTURE 9 FREUDENFREUDE VS. SCHADENFREUDE Two opposing concepts Only one can enhance happiness (based on science) Road from Schadenfreude --> Freudenfreude 1. SCIENCE OF SCHADENFREUDE 1. Definition: pleasure derived from another person's misfortune; finding joy in others failing ○ Schaden = Harm ○ Freude = Joy ○ Part of the human experience 2. Degrees of SF: ○ SOCIAL COMPARISON THEORY: people evaluate their perceived personal and social worth by assessing how they compare to others Evaluating our opinions, accomplishments, failures in contrast to others engage in this comparison to form a benchmark ○ Two types: Upwards Social Comparison: with individuals who are better off/superior to us; desire to improve ourselves, looking for ways to achieving similar results Ex. Social Media - comparing our lives to others SF is strongest when we see individuals who are better off than us failing Ex. if Taylor Swift and Travis Kelce broke up, that would make some people happy. Due to our envy, insecurities, etc. Downward Social Comparison: taking joy when others fail in situations where you are better off (and more deserving) Ex. Classmate's exam grade is lower than yours (ie. at least I'm not like Joey over there) Makes you feel better about your traits MOTIVATIONAL MODEL OF SCHADENFREUDE Each subform represents a unique emotional response and motivational degree of Schadenfreude 1. Justice Most socially acceptable Misfortune of another serves a greater sense of fairness or equity Witnessing the undoing of a perceived imbalance that restores moral order Ex. Cops pulls over the car that cut you off (ex. justice is brought to someone that did you dirty)  2. Rivalry Closely tied to competition, self-evaluation Feeling relief from a rival's failure, leading to an improvement in your self-reflection Common in competitive environments (ex. workplace, academia) and romantic relationships Ex. Comparing yourself to an ex's new partner (ie. your replacement); not wanting them to be as happy as they were with you Second example: SZA's Kill Bill (hate to see you happy when I'm not the one driving!) 3. Aggression Linked to hostility and desire for retribution Downfall of others = deserving of consequences of their actions; punitive Ex. Sports fans who are aggressive of those from another team Ex. gaining happiness from the pain that the opposing team experiences when one of their players get injured Ex. Soccer fans are happier when the other team misses than when their own team scores 1. Key Findings: ○ Personality traits Matter (Greener et. al 2017) Openness, self esteem influence how we react to others' misfortunes High Narcissism ~ more likely to experience SF, especially when it harms their own self image ○ Cultural Norms (Philips et. al 2022) NOT universal; varies across cultures Cultures that highlight competition success, individual achievement = misfortune of others provides the most validation; also has high stigma of failure ○ Media Influence (Cecconi et. al 2020) Social media plays a huge role Especially when celebrities and other famous figures experience failures Individuals more likely to enjoy suffering of others when it portrays them as deserving of their fate, or when it reinforces societal stereotypes (perpetuated by social media) **Overall, SF has negative effects on our happiness ROLE OF EMPATHY 1. SCIENCE OF FREUDENFREUDE  1. Definition of FF: finding joy in other people's joy and achievements; ability to understand and share the feelings of others, moving us away from SF ○ Pleasure derived from another person's good fortune Freuden = joy; freude = joy ○ Empathy! Opens the gate and is integral to FF There are empathy related brain regions; inversely activated when we experience SF SF is less likely when individuals feel empathy for the individual that is suffering ○ Ex. USA gymnasts bowing down to Brazilian gymnast who won gold ○ Ex. you being happy that your friend aced their exam, even when you did not 1. Enhancing FF: ○ Shoy: sharing + joy "I'm so proud of you!" "You deserved that!" Not moving away from conversation to quickly; show thorough interest, ask follow-up questions ○ Bragitude: brag + gratitude YOU share positive news, helping other individual experience FF Don't come across as bragging, but as grateful "Thank you for your support" "I wouldn't have done it without you" 1. Why bother? Significance? : Less jealousy Less stress and depression Less Irritability Increased generosity Foster resilience Enhanced Social connection Reinforced social bonds Increased. Life Satisfaction! LECTURE 10 Factors Supporting Happiness Personality (emotional stability (low neuroticism), conscientiousness, extroversion) Cognitive Biases awareness ○ Ex. Hedonic treadmill/Arrival Fallacy, Impact Bias Self-Compassion  Lesson from Finland and Blue Zones (Japan) ○ Effects of government, socialness, Good Relationships (call a friend, social cohesion) Practice Freudenfreude (empathy, shoy, bragitude) Be mindful and reflect! HAPPINESS OUTCOMES Physical Activity!! = promotes happiness 1. Enhances sleep quality, decreases sleep disorders 1. More effective sleep = more life satisfaction 2. Social Fitness 1. Building social relationships b/w individuals of same interests 2. Reducing loneliness and negative health outcomes associated with this 3. Group fitness may be biggest predictor of healthy life (esp. in older ages) 3. Neurotransmitters 1. Chemical messengers travelling across synapses 2. Endorphins + Dopamine = largest happiness contributors; released when you exercise 1. Balance pain control 2. Mood stabilizer 3. Enhance motivation, happiness 4. Less chronic Illness 1. After 30 mins of regular exercise, depressed individuals report feeling better 2. Strength training 3. Best for depression, general anxiety, schizophrenia NOTE: all are mutually inclusive (ie. social fitness is associated with less chronic illness, etc.) When it comes to physical activity, be a JOINER!! Transtheoretical Model (KEY POINTS) We initially see the barriers as to why we should NOT join ○ Ex. Gym is too intimidating, I have no time, Regularly joining for 6+ months ~ eventually leads you to reach the maintenance phase ○ Becomes apart of your identity! A non-negotiable priority ○ All the barriers "fade away" over time, and are replaced with positive benefits of physical activity (ex. better sleep, high dopamine/endorphins, etc.) Your Brain on GRATITUDE BRINGS POSITIVES ○ Strengthens positive neural pathways ○ Lights up brain's reward pathways ○ Boosts serotonin, dopamine ○ Brain activity in learning and decision-making COUNTERS NEGATIVES ○ Overcomes barriers to happiness ○ Lowers negativity bias ○ Mitigates against hedonic treadmill ○ Antidote to social comparisons ARTICLE: How Gratitude Changes You and Your Brain 1)Gratitude unshackles us from toxic emotions Gratitude letter writing shifts focus away from negative feelings, such as resentment or envy, by fostering a mindset of appreciation Use more "we" words (first person plural); only when people used fewer negative emotion words in their letters were they significantly more likely to report better mental health. 2)Gratitude helps even if you don't share it A study involving people in counseling showed that writing gratitude letters (to themselves, without sending the letter to others) improved mental health more effectively than counseling alone or writing about negative experiences. benefits persisted for weeks after the writing exercises ended; does not entirely dependent on actually communicating gratitude with another person 3)Gratitude's Benefits take time (Gradual impact)  mental health benefits of gratitude take time to manifest. While immediate effects may not be noticeable, the positive changes become more apparent over weeks Report better health over 4 weeks, becoming larger after 12 weeks 4)Gratitude has lasting effects on the brain Practicing gratitude influences brain activity in regions associated with decision-making and empathy, such as the medial prefrontal cortex. ○ Separate from guilt and desire ○ Being more grateful = more attentive in how they express gratitude changes were observed up to three months after gratitude exercises, indicating that gratitude might "train" the brain for sustained positivity and sensitivity Pay it forward study: individuals were regularly given a small amount of money by a nice person, called the “benefactor.” This benefactor only asked that they pass the money on to someone if they felt grateful.