Psychology Review PDF

**PSYCHOLOGY** ============== - the study of mind and behavior - encompasses the biological influences, social pressures, and environmental factors that affect how people think, act, and feel. **Modern Definition:** - Scientific study of human behavior and mental processes - It seek...

**PSYCHOLOGY** ============== - the study of mind and behavior - encompasses the biological influences, social pressures, and environmental factors that affect how people think, act, and feel. **Modern Definition:** - Scientific study of human behavior and mental processes - It seeks to understand how individuals think, feel, and act, exploring a wide range of topics, including perception, cognition, emotion, personality, and social interactions. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **ETYMOLOGY** | | ============= | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - **Greek word** - Psyche = "soul or mind" - Logos = "study of" +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **HISTORY** | | =========== | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ Psychology has roots in ancient philosophy but became a distinct scientific discipline in the late 19th century. Key figures like Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory, emphasizing empirical research and introspection. Over the years, various schools of thought---such as behaviorism, psychoanalysis, and humanistic psychology---have emerged, each contributing unique perspectives and methodologies. - Animistic Belief - Greek Influence - Studying the mind and the soul of living organism - Greek believes that the Man is the highest form of animal since they have the ability to think rationally +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ELEMENTS OF PSYCHOLOGY | | ---------------------- | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - **Scientific** - Wilhelm Wundt (1879) -- Father of Experimental Psychology (Leipzig, Germany) - Psychology became science - **Studying** - Studying the abnormality and normality about Man - **Human Behavior** - Pertains to the movement of the body - **Mental Process** - Cognitive Process - Performed by the brain +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **HUMAN BEHAVIOR** | | ================== | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - **Overt and Covert** - Overt -- visible to the naked eye (outward) - Covert -- opposite of Overt (inward) - **Conscious and Unconscious** - Conscious -- Aware - Unconscious -- Not Aware - **Rational and Irrational** - Rational - Use of thinking and Reasoning (Intentional) - Irrational -- Not using of Reasoning nor Thinking (Unintentional) - **Voluntary and Involuntary** - Voluntary -- done with full will or full volition - Involuntary -- Physiological processes within the body - **Simple and Complex** - Simple - Complex +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY | | --------------------- | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ The historical foundation of philosophy can be traced back to ancient civilizations, where early thinkers sought to understand the nature of existence, knowledge, ethics, and the cosmos. Here are some key periods and figures: **Ancient Philosophy (circa 6th century BCE - 5th century CE)** - **Pre-Socratics**: Early Greek philosophers like Thales, Anaximander, and Heraclitus focused on cosmology and the nature of being. - **Socrates**: Emphasized ethics and the importance of self-knowledge; known for the Socratic method of questioning. - **Plato**: A student of Socrates, he explored forms, reality, and idealism in works like \"The Republic.\" - **Aristotle**: A student of Plato, he contributed to numerous fields, including logic, metaphysics, ethics, and politics, emphasizing empirical observation. **Medieval Philosophy (circa 5th - 15th centuries)** - **Christian Philosophy**: Thinkers like Augustine integrated Greek philosophy with Christian doctrine, exploring the nature of God and faith. - **Islamic Golden Age**: Philosophers such as Avicenna and Averroes preserved and expanded upon Greek thought, influencing both the East and West. - **Scholasticism**: Figures like Thomas Aquinas sought to reconcile faith and reason, laying the groundwork for modern Western philosophy. **Renaissance Philosophy (14th - 17th centuries)** - Emphasized humanism, focusing on individual potential and the study of classical texts. - Thinkers like Descartes, who famously declared \"Cogito, ergo sum\" (\"I think, therefore I am\"), began to explore epistemology and the nature of reality. **Modern Philosophy (17th - 19th centuries)** - **Rationalism**: Philosophers like Spinoza and Leibniz emphasized reason as the primary source of knowledge. - **Empiricism**: Figures like Locke, Berkeley, and Hume argued that knowledge comes from sensory experience. - **Kant**: Attempted to synthesize rationalism and empiricism, focusing on how we understand the world. **Contemporary Philosophy (20th century - Present)** - **Existentialism**: Explored individual existence and freedom, with thinkers like Sartre and Heidegger. - **Analytic Philosophy**: Emphasized clarity and argumentation, with figures like Russell and Wittgenstein. - **Postmodernism**: Challenged objective truths and explored the subjective nature of knowledge and culture. These historical developments laid the groundwork for various branches of philosophy, influencing ethics, politics, metaphysics, epistemology, and more. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY** | | ======================= | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ The goals of psychology can be broadly categorized into four main objectives: **1. Description** - **Goal**: To observe and describe behaviors and mental processes accurately. - **Purpose**: This involves documenting and detailing what people do, think, and feel in various situations, providing a foundation for further study. **2. Explanation** - **Goal**: To understand and explain why behaviors and mental processes occur. - **Purpose**: This includes developing theories and identifying causes or factors that influence behavior, such as biological, psychological, and social influences. **3. Prediction** - **Goal**: To predict how individuals will behave in certain situations based on previous observations and data. - **Purpose**: By understanding the patterns and causes of behavior, psychologists can make informed predictions, which can be applied in various fields, such as clinical settings or organizational behavior. **4. Change** - **Goal**: To promote positive change in behavior and mental processes. - **Purpose**: This encompasses interventions, therapies, and strategies aimed at improving mental health, enhancing well-being, and fostering personal growth. It includes helping individuals overcome challenges or develop new skills. These goals serve as guiding principles for psychological research and practice, helping to improve understanding of human behavior and inform effective interventions. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | SCHOOL OF THOUGHTS IN PSYCHOLOGY | | -------------------------------- | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ Psychology has several influential schools of thought, each offering different perspectives on understanding human behavior and mental processes. Here are some of the major schools: **1. Structuralism** - **Founder**: Wilhelm Wundt - **Focus**: Breaking down mental processes into their basic components. Structuralists used introspection to analyze the structure of consciousness. **2. Functionalism** - **Founders**: William James and others - **Focus**: Understanding the purpose of mental processes and behavior in helping individuals adapt to their environment. It emphasized the function of consciousness rather than its structure. **3. Psychoanalysis** - **Founder**: Sigmund Freud - **Focus**: The role of the unconscious mind, childhood experiences, and interpersonal relationships in shaping behavior and personality. Techniques include free association and dream analysis. **4. Behaviorism** - **Founders**: John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner - **Focus**: Studying observable behavior rather than internal mental states. Behaviorists emphasize the influence of the environment on behavior through conditioning. **5. Humanistic Psychology** - **Founders**: Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow - **Focus**: Emphasizing personal growth, self-actualization, and the inherent goodness of people. It highlights individual experiences and the importance of a supportive environment. **6. Cognitive Psychology** - **Focus**: Understanding mental processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving. It examines how people think, learn, and remember, often using scientific methods. **7. Gestalt Psychology** - **Founders**: Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka - **Focus**: Understanding the mind and behavior as a whole rather than in parts. It emphasizes perception and how we organize experiences into meaningful wholes. **8. Biopsychology (or Neuroscience)** - **Focus**: Examining the relationship between biological processes and psychological phenomena. It studies the brain, neurotransmitters, and genetics in understanding behavior and mental processes. **9. Evolutionary Psychology** - **Focus**: Exploring how evolutionary principles influence human behavior and mental processes. It examines adaptive functions of behavior and the role of natural selection. **10. Cultural Psychology** - **Focus**: Understanding how cultural factors influence psychological processes. It examines the interplay between culture and individual behavior, thoughts, and emotions. These schools of thought reflect the diversity within psychology and contribute to its development as a comprehensive field of study. Each offers unique insights and methodologies for exploring human behavior. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **Republic Act No. 10029** | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | Republic Act No. 10029, also known as the \"Philippine Mental Health | | Act,\" was enacted in 2009. This law aims to promote mental health | | and protect the rights of individuals with mental health issues in | | the Philippines. Key provisions of the act include: | | | | 1. **Establishment of Mental Health Policies**: It mandates the | | development of national policies and programs to ensure mental | | health services are accessible and comprehensive. | | | | 2. **Rights of Persons with Mental Health Conditions**: It | | emphasizes the protection of the rights of individuals with | | mental health conditions, ensuring their dignity and autonomy. | | | | 3. **Integration of Mental Health in Healthcare**: The act promotes | | the integration of mental health services into primary healthcare | | settings. | | | | 4. **Public Awareness and Education**: It encourages initiatives to | | raise public awareness about mental health issues and reduce | | stigma. | | | | 5. **Funding and Resources**: The law provides for funding to | | support mental health programs and services at both the national | | and local levels. | | | | This legislation represents a significant step towards improving | | mental health care and support in the Philippines. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **PSEUDO SCIENCES RELATED TO PSYCHOLOGY** | | ========================================= | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ Pseudo-sciences related to philosophy often involve claims or theories that lack empirical support or rigorous methodological foundations. Here are some examples: **1. Phrenology** - The belief that the shape and size of the skull can determine a person\'s character and mental abilities. This was popular in the 19th century but has been debunked. **2. Graphology** - The analysis of handwriting to determine personality traits. While some believe it can reveal aspects of a person's character, it lacks scientific validity. **3. Astrology** - The belief that the positions of celestial bodies can influence human behavior and personality. Many people turn to astrology for psychological insights, despite its lack of empirical support. **4. Dowsing** - The practice of using a forked stick or other tool to locate water or minerals, often claimed to also reveal psychological or emotional states. This lacks scientific basis. **5. Rebirthing Therapy** - A controversial therapeutic approach that involves simulating the experience of being born to address psychological issues. It has been criticized for being potentially harmful. **6. Crystal Healing** - The belief that crystals can influence physical and mental well-being. While some people find comfort in using crystals, there's no scientific evidence to support their efficacy. **7. Past Life Regression Therapy** - A practice that claims to access memories from previous lives to treat psychological issues. It is largely considered unscientific. **8. Energy Healing** - Various practices that claim to manipulate the body's energy fields to promote healing and psychological well-being. These practices often lack empirical support. **9. Laughter Therapy** - While laughter has health benefits, claims that it can cure serious psychological disorders without additional evidence are exaggerated. **10**. **Aura Reading** - refers to the practice of interpreting the energy field, or aura, that is believed to surround living beings. Practitioners claim that this energy field reflects a person\'s emotional, mental, and spiritual state. **11. Moleosophy (Mole Reading)** - involves interpreting the characteristics of moles on the body---such as their size, shape, color, and location---to derive insights about a person\'s personality, health, or fate. Practitioners believe that each mole can carry specific meanings, often linking them to traits like luck, intelligence, or emotional states. **12. Homeopathy** - A system of alternative medicine based on the principle that substances that cause symptoms in healthy individuals can cure similar symptoms in sick individuals. Its efficacy is not supported by scientific research. These pseudo-sciences can sometimes gain popularity due to anecdotal evidence or personal testimonies, but they lack the rigorous scientific validation that characterizes genuine psychological practices. Often invoke philosophical questions and debates but lack the empirical validation that characterizes true scientific inquiry. Engaging with them can provide insights into the nature of belief, evidence, and the philosophical foundations of science +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **PSYCHOLOGY** | | ============== | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ A. **Meaning** - Etymological Meaning - **Greek Word** i. **Psyche --** mind/soul ii. **Logy/Logos/Logus --** science / study B. **Literal Meaning** - Science of mind/soul - Study of mind/soul **Modern Definition:** - Scientific study of human behavior and mental processes - It seeks to understand how individuals think, feel, and act, exploring a wide range of topics, including perception, cognition, emotion, personality, and social interactions. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ELEMENTS OF PSYCHOLOGY | | ---------------------- | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - **Scientific** - Wilhelm Wundt (1879) -- Father of Experimental Psychology/ Father of Psychology (Leipzig, Germany) - Psychology became science - Science -- Systematic (Use of method like observation and experiment) - **Studying** - learn more quickly and choose a vocation more intelligently - obtain emotional balance and equilibrium - become a socially responsible individuals - Since psychology is science then we should study it - We study Psychology because.... - To choose vocation more intelligently - To become emotionally matures or getting the best - To become a socially responsible individual - **Human Behavior** - Pertains to the movement of the body - any action/movement of the body that be can observed objectively and subjectively - Pretty much... ANYTHING that you do, think or feel. - **Mental Process** - Cognitive Process - Performed by the brain According to **Dr. Garland** , "you should also know what are these pseudoscience tests for misconceptions, wrong notions about the study of psychology." +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **CLASSIFICATION OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR** | | ==================================== | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - **Overt and Covert** - Overt -- visible to the naked eye (manifested outward) and can be observed - Covert -- opposite of Overt (manifested inward) and only felt and experienced by the person doing such behavior. - **Conscious and Unconscious** - Conscious -- Aware; physiological responses that you feel and you will experience. - Unconscious -- Not Aware; you are believed to be unaware of; cannot actually explain. - **Rational and Irrational** - Rational - Use of thinking and Reasoning (Intentional); behavior that is done with the use of our thinking; You thought of it - Irrational -- Not using of Reasoning nor Thinking (Unintentional); one without the use of your thinking. It\'s without the use of your reason. - **Voluntary and Involuntary** - Voluntary -- done with full will or full volition - Involuntary -- Physiological processes within the body - **Simple and Complex** - Simple -- Simple actions - Complex - behaviors denoting various movements; majority of human behavior +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY? | | ------------------- | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - Psychology - scientific study of behavior and mental processes. - Behavior - outward or overt actions and reactions. - Mental processes *-* internal, covert activity of our minds. - Psychology is a science - Prevent possible biases from leading to faulty observations - Precise and careful measurement +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **MISCONCEPTIONS/ WRONG NOTIONS ABOUT PSYCHOLOGY** | | ================================================== | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - The ψ and the Mysterious - Magic - The ψ and the Common Sense - Logical - The ψ and the Pseudo Sciences -- Fake Sciences +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | PSEUDOSCIENCES | | -------------- | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - **Clairvoyance**: The ability to gain information about an object, person, or event through extrasensory perception. - **Cartomancy**: The practice of fortune-telling using playing cards or tarot cards. - **Astrology**: The study of the positions and movements of celestial bodies, believed to influence human affairs and natural phenomena. - **Numerology**: The belief in the mystical significance of numbers and their influence on life events and personality traits. - **Graphology**: The analysis of handwriting to infer personality traits and emotional states. - **Phrenology**: An outdated theory that the shape of the skull can determine personality traits and intellectual abilities. - **Physiognomy**: The assessment of a person\'s character or personality from their outer appearance, particularly the face. - **Palmistry**: The practice of interpreting the lines and features of the palms to predict the future or reveal information about a person. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY** | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **By: Kenneth Savitsky** | | | | **SPOTLIGHT EFFECT PHENOMENON** | | | | In psychology we can control bad/undesirable/negative behavior | | | | The goals of psychology can be broadly categorized into four main | | objectives: | | | | **1. Describe Behavior** -- What the person is doing | | | | - **Goal**: To observe and describe behaviors and mental processes | | accurately. | | | | - **Purpose**: This involves documenting and detailing what people | | do, think, and feel in various situations, providing a foundation | | for further study. | | | | **2. Explanation Behavior** -- Reason why he is doing the action | | | | - **Goal**: To understand and explain why behaviors and mental | | processes occur. | | | | - **Purpose**: This includes developing theories and identifying | | causes or factors that influence behavior, such as biological, | | psychological, and social influences. | | | | **3. Prediction Behavior** -- Behavior we see | | | | - **Goal**: To predict how individuals will behave in certain | | situations based on previous observations and data. | | | | - **Purpose**: By understanding the patterns and causes of | | behavior, psychologists can make informed predictions, which can | | be applied in various fields, such as clinical settings or | | organizational behavior. | | | | **4. Change Behavior** -- How to help | | | | - **Goal**: To promote positive change in behavior and mental | | processes. | | | | - **Purpose**: This encompasses interventions, therapies, and | | strategies aimed at improving mental health, enhancing | | well-being, and fostering personal growth. It includes helping | | individuals overcome challenges or develop new skills. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **HISTORICAL FOUNDATION** | | ========================= | | | | **(SCHOOL OF THOUGHTS IN PSYCHOLOGY)** | | ====================================== | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **STRUCTURALISM** - **Founder** - Edward B. Titchener and Wilhelm Wundt - **Purpose** - structure of the mind - **Fields of Study** - basic elements of the mind (Sensation and Perception) - **Method Used** - Introspection **Building Blocks of the Mind** **Sensation** - initial process of detecting and receiving stimuli from the environment through our sensory organs. **Perception --** mental process where brain makes interpretation of what is sensed from the environment **FUNCTIONALISM** - **Founder** - William James (Principles of Psychology)1890 - **Purpose** -- function/goals/purpose of the mind - **Fields of Study** - higher mental functions of mind; use of the mind in learning on how to adjust, learning on how to adapt - **Method used** - Observation **GESTALT** - → whole/configuration - **Founder** -- (left to right) Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Kohler, Max Wertheimer - **Purpose** - whole patterns of man's behavior rather than its specific parts - **Fields of study** - wholeness of man - "The whole is more than the sum of its parts" - "A change in any element change the whole" - **Method used** -- Observation **BEHAVIORISM** - **Founder** -- John B. Watson - **Purpose** - study objective observable behaviors of man - **Fields of Study** - "overt behaviors" - **Method used --** Observation **HUMANISTIC** - **Founder** -- Carl Rogers - **Purpose** -- Free will - **Fields of Study** - "man's freedom in directing his life" - **Method used** - Observation **PSYCHOANALYSIS** - **Founder** -- Sigmund Freud - **Purpose** -- study the etiology and treatment of mental and nervous disorders (unconscious) - **Fields of study -** mental illness - **Method used** - couch method/free-association - **LIBIDO Theory** - Sex is the man's source of energy - Sex constitutes the main human drive - Unconscious State of Mind **COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY** - one of the newest fields which studies higher mental activities **BIOLOGICAL/PHYSIOLOGICAL** - **Biological** -- heredity - **Physiological** -- nervous system **PURPOSIVISM** - **Founder** - William McDougall - **Purpose** - to study the purpose of behavior - **Fields of study** - Striving/goal seeking - **Method used** -- Observation +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **SIGMUND FREUD** | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **Topographical Model of Mind** | | | | **Conscious Mind 20%** | | | | - **Description**: This part includes everything we are currently | | aware of and can think about actively. It encompasses our | | thoughts, perceptions, and feelings. | | | | - **Function**: The conscious mind is responsible for our immediate | | awareness and decision-making processes. | | | | **Pre-Conscious Mind** | | | | - **Description**: This region contains thoughts and memories that | | are not currently in conscious awareness but can be easily | | retrieved. It acts as a bridge between the conscious and | | unconscious minds. | | | | - **Function**: Information in the preconscious can become | | conscious with little effort, such as recalling a memory or a | | fact when prompted. | | | | **Unconscious Mind** | | | | - **Description**: The largest and most influential part of the | | mind according to Freud, it houses thoughts, memories, desires, | | and feelings that are not accessible to conscious awareness, | | often because they are repressed or deemed unacceptable. | | | | | | | | - **Function**: The | | unconscious influences behavior and emotions, often manifesting | | through dreams, slips of the tongue, and symptoms of | | psychological distress. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **SIGMUND FREUD** | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY** | | | | **Id (Hedonism/Hedonistic)** | | | | - The primal part of personality that operates on the pleasure | | principle. It seeks immediate gratification of basic urges, | | desires, and instincts (such as hunger, sex, and aggression) | | without considering reality or consequences. | | | | (Hedonism is a philosophical theory that defines pleasure as the | | highest good and the primary goal of human life.) | | | | **Ego** | | | | - The rational component that operates on the reality principle. It | | mediates between the desires of the id and the constraints of the | | real world, helping individuals make realistic and socially | | acceptable decisions. | | | | **Superego** | | | | - The moral component that represents internalized societal rules | | and ideals. It functions as a conscience, guiding behavior based | | on moral standards and feelings of guilt when those standards are | | violated. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **AREAS OF PSYCHOLOGY** | | ======================= | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - Developmental/Genetic Psychology - Experimental Psychology - Social Psychology - Personality Psychology - Abnormal Psychology - Clinical Psychology - Counseling Psychology - Biological /Physiological ѱ - Educational Psychology - School Psychology - Industrial/Organizational ѱ - Engineering ѱ/Ergonomics/Human Factors - Current Trends and Issues in Psychology - Filipino Psychology +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | LOCUS OF CONTROL -- J.B ROTTER | | ------------------------------ | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ Types: 1. Internal -- personal characteristics 2. External -- luck/destiny +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT | | ------------------------ | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ I. Title of the Test: II. Test Author and Description III. Examinee's Information IV. Test Result and Interpretation V. Summary and Recommendation +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | METHODS USED IN STUDYING PSYCHOLOGY | | ----------------------------------- | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ Types: 1. Pure 2. Applied +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | METHODS USED | | ------------ | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - Descriptive Method - Naturalistic Observation - Laboratory Experiments - Survey - Questionnaire - Interview - Structured - Unstructured - Experimental Method - Independent Variable - Dependent Variable - Experimental Group - Controlled Group - Correlational Method - determine the relationship between variables of the study. Results of Correlation: - Positive - Negative +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **OTHER INFORMATION** | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **Ancient Period** | | | | - Animistic Belief | | | | - Animism is the belief that objects, places, and creatures possess | | a spiritual essence or consciousness. This perspective can lead | | to the view that non-human entities have feelings, intentions, or | | a life force. | | | | **Philosophers** | | | | - Greek Influence | | | | - Due to their curiosity about the behavior of animals | | | | - Studying the mind and the soul of living organism | | | | - Greek believes that the Man is the highest form of animal | | since they have the ability to think rationally | | | | - Man became the main subject | | | | - **Philosophy -- Love of Wisdom** | | | | - Philo = Wisdom | | | | - Sophia = Lovers of | | | | - **Philosopher - Lovers of Wisdom** | | | | Most Used Method -- Observation | | | | Oldest Method -- Introspection | | | | **Introspection** | | | | - Introduce during Medieval Time by St. Augustine | | | | - process of self mental analysis is a process of analyzing oneself | | in our dialog. | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOUR (PART 1)** | | ================================================ | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **Nervous System** - Control Center of the Human Body - Made of billion of nerve cells called NEURONS -- transmit nerve impulses to the different parts of the body allowing the nervous system to control body functions **Nerve Cells** - A type of cell that receives and sends messages from the body to the brain and back to the body. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | DIVISION OF NERVOUS SYSTEM | | -------------------------- | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ I. THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (**CNS)** consists of the brain and the spinal cord II. THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM **(PNS)** -- consists of nerve fibers that connect the receptors to the CNS, and which further connects the CNS to the effectors. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM | | ---------------------- | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - Consists of the Brain and Spinal Cord - Plays an essential role in coordinating behavior. It includes all the *neurons in the brain and the spinal cord.* **SPINAL CORD** is 11-18 inch long that connects the peripheral and spinal nerves with the brain. - *Four segments of the SPINAL CORD* 1. 2. 3. 4. The **BRAIN** is the control center of all voluntary and some involuntary behaviors. - It is composed of billions of neurons weighing just **3 pounds in the average adult.** - It is an extremely complex mass of nerve tissues organized and protected by the skull or ***cranium.*** **Brain is composed of:** A. ***Cerebrum*** found in the Forebrain***,*** B. ***Cerebellum, and*** 1. ***Brainstem*** found in the Hindbrain +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM | | ------------------------- | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - Consists of nerves that connect the brain and spinal cord to the *sensory organs*, *muscles and glands* through the somatic and autonomic nervous systems. - Three main pathways are: 1. Cranial nerves 2. Spinal nerves 3. Peripheral ganglia - There are 12 pairs of cranial nerves that pass through small openings in the skull concerned with sensory and motor function, or both. - There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves, each pair at each side of the body +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | TYPES OF NERVES IN THE PNS | | -------------------------- | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **SENSORY (afferent) NEURON** - carry messages or nerve impulses from the sense organ toward the brain/CNS - Input process **MOTOR (efferent) NEURON** - carries messages or nerve impulses away from brain or CNS - Output process **INTERNEURON (connector / association)** - which is found only in the brain, eyes and spinal cord, receives signals from the sensory neurons and sends them to other interneuron or motor neurons. - Process that connects the afferent and efferent **GLIAL cells** are specialized cells in the brain and spinal cord - that holds neurons together, - remove waste products such as dead neurons and - perform other manufacturing, nourishing and clean-up tasks. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | DIVISION OF MOTOR NEURON (EFFERENT) | | ----------------------------------- | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ 1. The ***SOMATIC NERVOUS*** system is a voluntary system that includes the: a. ***sensory system*** which transmits information from the sense receptors -- ***eyes, ears, nose, tongue and skin*** -- to the central nervous system and b. the ***motor nerves*** that control the skeletal muscles, the voluntary and involuntary systems in the body. 2. The ***AUTONOMIC NERVOUS*** system transmits messages between the central nervous system (CNS) and the glands, the heart muscles (cardiac) and the smooth muscles, which are **not** under voluntary control. - Self-regulating +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | DIVISION OF AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM | | ------------------------------------ | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **Sympathetic Nervous System** - during expanding of energy and muscular activities and functions during stressful situations - *dilation of pupils, rapid heartbeat, tensed muscles, constriction of blood vessels intestines become inactive.* - Fight Response **Parasympathetic Nervous System** - during building up of bodily resources and conserving energy and functions during states of tranquility and relaxation - *constriction of pupils, slow heart beat, relaxed muscles, dilation of blood vessels, intestines become active* - Fly Response +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF A NEURON** | | ==================================== | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **Neuron** - cells considered to be the basis of nervous tissue. - responsible for the electrical signals that communicate information about sensations, and that produce movements in response to those stimuli, along with inducing thought processes within the brain. - An individual nerve cell is the basic structural and functional unit / element of the nervous system. - It is the specialized cell which the is passageway in the transmission of neural impulses or messages to other neurons, glands and muscles **Nerve** -- bundle of axons from many neurons  +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | PARTS OF A NEURON | | ----------------- | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **Dendrites** - Tree-like structure that branches out of the soma - Receives neural impulses and carries them TO the soma - Receive the sensations from every part of the body **Cell Body or Soma** - The cell body contains the nucleus and most of the major organelles. - Neurons are usually described as having one, and only one, axon---a fiber that emerges from the cell body and projects to target cells. - Responsible for the Processing and Interpretation **Axon** - A tube like extension of the soma - Transmits neural impulses AWAY to the soma / cell body to other neurons and is covered by ***myelin sheath*** **Nodes of Ranvier** - These gaps allow ions to flow in and out of the neuron, speeding up electrical impulses through saltatory conduction. **Schwann Cells** - They wrap around axons to form the myelin sheath, providing insulation and support for faster signal transmission. - Produces Myelin **Myelin Sheath** - This lipid-rich layer that acts as protective barrier of axon and increases the speed of electrical signals, ensuring efficient communication. **Axon Terminal** - This is where neurotransmitters are released to transmit signals to other neurons or muscles, facilitating communication across synapses. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | OTHER TERMS | | ----------- | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **Neurotransmitters** - chemical / electrical substances that are released by terminals of one neuron and flow across the synaptic gap to the receptors of the next neuron. - Each type of neurotransmitter has specific location which fits into a reception site that chemical communication is possible. - Transmit messages of two types: 1. Excitatory ( activation) -- facilitates and speeds us transmission of neural impulses from one neuron to another 2. Inhibitory ( reduced activity) -- prevents or slows down transmission of neural impulses across the synaptic gap. **Axonal** - Pertains to the axon, the long, slender projection of a neuron that conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body. - Chemical Impulses **Synaptic** - Relates to synapses, the junctions between neurons where communication occurs, often involving neurotransmitter release. - Electrical and Chemical Impulses **Synapses** - These are the connections between neurons, allowing for the transmission of signals, either chemical (via neurotransmitters) or electrical. They play a crucial role in neural communication and processing. - Point of Contact with2 neuron - Spaces between the axon of a neuron. - Once the nerve impulse or action potential reaches the tip of the axon, it causes the release of a chemical known as transmitter into the synapse +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | NERVE IMPULSES | | -------------- | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - **STIMULUS** -- anything that excites or initiates an activity. - Once stimulus is received by the receptor, it leads to creation of electrical signals known as NERVE IMPULSES or messages - Sending or firing of a neuron down the axon from the end of one neuron to the next neuron is called ***action potential.*** - Before a nerve impulse reaches its destination, it has to pass through several specialized nerve boundaries or junctures known as **SYNAPSES** +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | CHARACTERISTICS OF A NEURON | | --------------------------- | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - Irritability -- the ability to react to external stimuli - Conductivity -- the ability to transmit nerve impulses up to the end of the nerve fiber. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE BRAIN** | | ===================================== | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system. - ***Forebrain, midbrain* and *hindbrain*** are the three areas of the brain, constituting different parts of the brain. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | PARTS OF THE BRAIN | | ------------------ | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **Forebrain** - comprises *cerebrum, thalamus and hypothalamus.* **Midbrain** - located between the thalamus of the forebrain and pons of the hindbrain. **Hindbrain** - comprises *pons, cerebellum and medulla.* A diagram of the human brain Description automatically generated +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | FOREBRAIN | | --------- | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - Largest Region of the Brain ***CEREBRUM*** - *the "new brain"* / *seat of consiousness*; so unique that only humans have them - Thin layer that covers the cerebrum is called " cerebral cortex" and - beneath the surface is a white matter made up of myelinated fibers. - Consists of ½ of the skull **CEREBRAL CORTEX --** seat of memory involved in higher cognitive functions such as : - [Thinking] - [Reasoning] - [Judgment ] 1. Sensory input areas -- vision, hearing, touch, pressure and temperature register 2. Motor areas -- control voluntary movement 3. Association areas -- house memories involved in thinking, perception and language **THALAMUS** - two egg-shaped structures located just above the brain stem. - serves as a relay station of messages/information coming from all the organs except smell. - ability of learning new verbal information - Relay the sensory to the regional cortex (lobes) **HYPOTHALAMUS** - located below thalamus, much lesser in size; a. Regulates hunger, b. Regulates thirst, c. Regulates sexual behavior, emotions and endocrine activities, d. Maintain homeostasis e. Seat of man's emotion **CORPUS CALLOSUM** - Connect both brain hemispheres; Function is for coordination **LEFT HEMISPHERE** - [Language functions] -- speaking, writing, reading, speech comprehension and comprehension of the logical written form - [Mathematical Abilities] -- calculation and analytical processing - Left brain dominant individuals are right handers - Responsible for positive emotions **RIGHT HEMISPHERE** - **Right brain** dominant individuals display certain abilities in ***visual-spatial perception , artistic appreciation, music and creative work,*** - Are left handers. - Expression of emotions through tone of voice and facial expressions - Seat of negative emotions +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | LOBES OF THE BRAIN | | ------------------ | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **FRONTAL LOBE** - largest of all lobes, contains all capacities to make us human - Involved in interpretation of emotions & experiences - Consists of motor area, speech/language area and frontal association area - **Seat of Personality** - **Motor Cortex Area** -- controls voluntary movement of the parts of the body - RIGHT MOTOR CORTEX -- controls movement of the left side of the body - LEFT MOTOR CORTEX -- controls movement on the right side of the body - **Speech /Language Area** - *Broca's* area is located in the frontal lobe; controls the muscles of the lips, tongue, jaws and vocal cords that produce speech/words. - Disorder associated as a result of head injury or stroke is *Aphasia*, - a language disorder that concerns comprehension, word choice, expression and syntax caused by disorganized speech - E.g. " I......put....book....table" - **Frontal Association Area** -- involved in integrating activity from other brain areas. - involved in higher mental process that may affect decision making, impulse control as well as processing emotional responses. **PARIETAL LOBE** - seat of body tactile and gustation - memory of environment - **SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX** -- region that receives information on bodily sensations -- touch, pressure, temperature and pain from nerves throughout the body - Spatial orientation and sense of direction -- recognizing left from right, when losing direction **DISORDERS IN THE PARIETAL LOBE** - DYSLEXIA -- word blindness, difficulty in recognizing letters, reading words, and spelling or writing, tends to go on sideway direction. - ACALCULIA -- damage to the right and left lobes associated with spatial orientation specially in mathematical calculation. - AGRAPHIA -- acquired disability in writing which involves dysfunction of parietal lobe **OCCIPITAL LOBE** -- visual area dedicated to **process visual information** related to different patterns of light intensity and color. - a person with damage in this area is functionally blind, despite having perfectly functioning eye. - e.g. Visual Agnosia -- problem disorder is identifying objects unless able to be touched by human hand. Involves area for vision in the right occipital lobe. **TEMPORAL LOBE -- slightly above the ears,** - involved in **hearing, memory**, language, object recognition and facial recognition related to auditory stimuli - Contains the **primary auditory** area called the Wernicke's area crucial in making language meaningful. - For auditory and smell stimuli +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | MIDBRAIN | | -------- | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - The midbrain (mesenchephalon) forms the upper part of the brain stem that connects the pons and medulla to the brain proper. - It consists of both white and gray matter. - Substatnia nigra large, dark pigment matter controls subconscious muscle activity. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | HINDBRAIN | | --------- | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **CEREBELLUM** - "little brain", makes up 10% of the brains volume; is located under the cerebrum. - function is to coordinate muscle movements, maintain posture, and balance. - Involved in motor learning and retaining memories of motor activities **TRANVERSE FISSURE** - deep groove in the brain that separates the cerebellum from the cerebrum. - It plays a role in delineating these two major brain regions and helps to anchor the structures in place, contributing to overall brain organization. **BRAIN STEM** - controls the involuntary behaviors - Consists of medulla oblongata, midbrain, and pons **Medulla Oblongata** - autonomic; It is responsible in the regulation of bodily processes such a. as heartbeat, b. respiration, c. circulation of the blood, and d. some reflexes such as swallowing, sneezing vomiting, coughing, chewing, etc. **Pons** - "bridge" which connects the two halves of the cerebellum; - transmits motor information and helps in the coordination of muscles and - in the integration of movement **between the right and left sides of the body.** **Reticular Formation (Reticular Activating System, RAS)** - the " working center, " group of nerve cells that control the sensory inputs, thereby, regulating arousal levels, alertness and sleep. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | LIMBIC SYSTEM | | ------------- | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - **the animal brain** - functions similar to animal; involved in emotional expression, memory and motivation **Hippocampus** - interior temporal lobes; role in the memory of storing new events as lasting memory or long-term memory; damage causes disorder such as amnesia - Seat of Man's memory **Amygdala** - involved in forming basic emotions ranging from memories with an emotional component such as fear and rage; damage causes difficulty in recognizing facial expressions +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF HUMAN BEHAVIOUR (PART 1)** | | ================================================ | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ A diagram of nervous system Description automatically generated **Nervous System** - body\'s decision and communication center **Division of the Nervous System** 1. **The central nervous system (CNS)** comprises those nerve cells lying inside the brain and the spinal cord. 2. **The peripheral nervous system (PNS)** is made of nerves outside the brain and the spinal cord. - Together they control every part of your daily life, from breathing and blinking to helping you memorize facts for a test. **Kinds of Peripheral Nerves** - **Sensory nerves (AFFERENT)** gather information from the environment, send that info to the spinal cord, which then speed the message to the brain. The brain then makes sense of that message and fires off a response. - **Interneuron (Relay)** neurons serve to connect the information gathered from the environment and deliver the information from the different areas of the body. - **Motor neurons ( EFFERENT)** deliver the instructions from the brain to the rest of your body. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE NEURON | | ---------------------------------- | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+  **Dendrites** - Tree-like structure that branches out of the soma - Receives neural impulses and carries them TO the soma - Receive the sensations from every part of the body **Cell Body or Soma** - The cell body contains the nucleus and most of the major organelles. - Neurons are usually described as having one, and only one, axon---a fiber that emerges from the cell body and projects to target cells. - Responsible for the Processing and Interpretation **Axon** - A tube like extension of the soma - Transmits neural impulses AWAY to the soma / cell body to other neurons and is covered by ***myelin sheath*** **Nodes of Ranvier** - These gaps allow ions to flow in and out of the neuron, speeding up electrical impulses through saltatory conduction. **Schwann Cells** - They wrap around axons to form the myelin sheath, providing insulation and support for faster signal transmission. - Produces Myelin **Myelin Sheath** - This lipid-rich layer that acts as protective barrier of axon and increases the speed of electrical signals, ensuring efficient communication. **Axon Terminal** - This is where neurotransmitters are released to transmit **signals** to other neurons or muscles, facilitating communication across synapses. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | PARTS OF THE BRAIN AND THEIR FUNCTIONS | | -------------------------------------- | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ 1. Forebrain - consists of the cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus (part of the limbic system). 2. Midbrain - consists of the tectum and tegmentum**.** 3. Hindbrain - made of the cerebellum, pons and medulla - Often the midbrain, pons, and medulla are referred to together as the brainstem. Image of the Limbic System **[The Cerebrum]** - The cerebrum or cortex is the largest part of the human brain, associated with higher brain function such as thought and action. **[The Cerebral Cortex]** - divided into four sections, called \"lobes\": the frontal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, and temporal lobe. **[The Cerebellum]** - \"little brain\", is similar to the cerebrum in that it has two hemispheres and has a highly folded surface or cortex. This structure is associated with regulation and coordination of movement, posture, and balance. - It is assumed to be much older than the cerebrum, evolutionarily. - Controls the posture - Controls the balance +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | LOBES OF THE BRAIN | | ------------------ | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ A. Frontal Lobe- associated with reasoning, planning, speaking, judgment, problem solving, and seat of personality. B. Parietal Lobe- associated with movement, orientation in space, recognition, perception of tactile stimuli and site of gustation. C. Occipital Lobe- associated with visual processing D. Temporal Lobe- associated with perception and recognition of auditory stimuli, memory (recall), and site of smell. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | LIMBIC SYSTEM | | ------------- | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - The limbic system, often referred to as the \"emotional brain\", is found buried within the cerebrum. - This system contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus. +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | BRAIN STEM | | ---------- | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - The lower part of the brain where it connects to the spinal cord. - It functions for basic survival such as: breathing, digestion, heart rate, blood pressure and for arousal (being awake and alert). - The brainstem is the pathway of the cranial nerves from the spinal cord to the higher parts of the brain. - Reticular Activating System (within medulla) controls wakefulness and alertness - The lower part of the brain where it connects to the spinal cord. - It functions for basic survival such as: breathing, digestion, heart rate, blood pressure and for arousal (being awake and alert). - The brainstem is the pathway of the cranial nerves from the spinal cord to the higher parts of the brain. - Reticular Activating System (within medulla) controls wakefulness and alertness ---------------------------- **HUMAN ENDOCRINE SYSTEM** ---------------------------- **The tissues and organs that produce hormones comprise the endocrine system** - In insects and other arthropods, growth and metamorphosis are controlled by pheromones. - **Pheromones** are chemicals that are released to the surrounding environment by animals. - **Neurosecretory cells** in the brain of insects secrete a prothoracicotropic hormone that activates prothoracic glands to secrete a hormone called ecdysone. This hormone induces ecdysis or molting. - **Sex hormones** also regulate reproductive development in simpler animals such as insects. ------------------------------------------ **ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS** ------------------------------------------ +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Endocrine Gland** | **Hormones Produced** | **Functions** | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Parathyroid | **Parathormone** | Raises calcium level | | Glands** | | in the blood | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Adrenal medulla** | **Adrenaline and | Initiates response to | | | noradrenaline** | stress | | | | | | | | Increases heart rate, | | | | blood pressure and | | | | metabolic rate | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Adrenal Cortex** | **Glucocorticoids\ | Makes body adapt to | | | \ | long term stress | | | ** | | | | | Maintains the balance | | | **Mineralocorticoids* | of sodium and | | | * | potassium ion | | | | excretion in cells | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Pancreas** | **Insulin\ | Lowers blood glucose | | | \ | level o | | | ** | | | | | Stimulates fat, | | | **Glucagon** | protein, glycogen | | | | synthesis | | | | | | | | Raises blood glucose | | | | level | | | | | | | | Stimulates the | | | | breakdown of glycogen | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Ovary** | **Estrogen** | Stimulate the | | | | development of female | | | **Progesterone** | secondary sex | | | | characteristics | | | | | | | | Stimulate the | | | | development of | | | | mammary glands | | | | | | | | Completes preparation | | | | for pregnancy | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Testis** | **Testosterone** | Stimulate the | | | | development of male | | | | secondary sex | | | | characteristics and | | | | rapid growth at | | | | puberty | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ | **Pineal Gland** | **Melatonin** | Regulates biological | | | | rhythms | +-----------------------+-----------------------+-----------------------+ --------------------- **PITUITARY GLAND** --------------------- - Considered as the master gland - Controls the other hormones - Divided into posterior and anterior portions ------------------------------------------------------- **HORMONES SECRETED BY THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND** ------------------------------------------------------- +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Hormones Produced** | **Functions** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Follicle-stimulating Hormone | Stimulates spermatogenesis or | | (FSH)** | sperm development in males | | | | | | Stimulates the development of | | | ovarian follicles in females | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Luteinizing Hormone (LH)** | In males, stimulates the | | | secretion of testosterones for | | | sperm production and for the | | | development of the male secondary | | | sex characteristics | | | | | | In females, stimulates the | | | production of estrogen and | | | progesterone for ovulation and | | | the formation of corpus luteum | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Growth Hormone (GH)** | Stimulates fat breakdown, muscle | | | and bone growth, and protein | | | synthesis that results in body | | | growth | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Thyroid-stimulating Hormone | Stimulates the thyroid gland to | | (TSH)** | produce thyroxine, which | | | regulates metabolism in the body | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)** | Elevates calcium level in the | | | blood by stimulating bone | | | breakdown | | | | | | Stimulates calcium reabsorption | | | in the kidneys and activates | | | vitamin D | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Prolactin** | Stimulates the mammary gland to | | | produce milk | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Adrenocorticotropic Hormone** | Stimulates the secretion of | | | adrenal cortical hormones such as | | | cortisol in humans, and | | | corticosterone in other | | | vertebrateS | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ -------------------------------------------------------- **HORMONES SECRETED BY THE POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND** -------------------------------------------------------- - **Oxytocin** - Targets the uterus and brings about uterine contractions during child- birth - regulates the mammary glands for milk ejection - **Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)** - maintains water balance in the body during the process of reabsorption in the kidneys +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **GLANDS IN THE HUMAN BODY** | | ============================ | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ **Major Kind of Glands** 1. EXOcrine - DUCT GLANDS - with canal/duct/opening - secretions are indirectly secreted into the blood stream - digestive process...salivary gland and intestinal gland 2. ENDOocrine - DUCTLESS GLANDS - Without canal/duct/opening - secretions are directly secreted into the blood stream +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | EXOCRINE | | -------- | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ 1. Salivary Gland - saliva 2. Mammary gland -- "milk" 3. Intestinal Gland -- gastric juice 4. Urethral Gland - lubricants (white blood cells/fluids) 5. Lachrymal gland -- tears 6. sweat gland -- sweat 7. sebaceous gland -- oil gland sebum +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | ENDOCRINE | | --------- | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+  - The endocrine system is made up of glands that produce and secrete hormones. - Hormones are chemical messengers created by the body. They transfer information from one set of cells to another to coordinate the functions of different parts of the body. - The hormones are released into the bloodstream and may affect one or several organs throughout the body **Functions:** - controls the body by means of chemical messengers that bring about slower, longer lasting responses and changes. - monitors all the other systems in the body in order to maintain homeostasis. - regulates the body\'s growth and development - controls the function of various tissues - regulates metabolism **Components:** The **hypothalamus**, found deep within the brain, directly controls the pituitary gland. It is sometimes described as the coordinator of the endocrine system. The **Pituitary Gland**, called the master gland, the pituitary secretes hormones that control the activity of other endocrine glands and process regulate various biological. ------------------------------------------------------- **HORMONES SECRETED BY THE ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND** ------------------------------------------------------- +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Hormones Produced** | **Functions** | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Follicle-stimulating Hormone | Stimulates spermatogenesis or | | (FSH)** | sperm development in males | | | | | | Stimulates the development of | | | ovarian follicles in females | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Luteinizing Hormone (LH)** | In males, stimulates the | | | secretion of testosterones for | | | sperm production and for the | | | development of the male secondary | | | sex characteristics | | | | | | In females, stimulates the | | | production of estrogen and | | | progesterone for ovulation and | | | the formation of corpus luteum | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Growth Hormone (GH)** | Stimulates fat breakdown, muscle | | | and bone growth, and protein | | | synthesis that results in body | | | growth | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Thyroid-stimulating Hormone | Stimulates the thyroid gland to | | (TSH)** | produce thyroxine, which | | | regulates metabolism in the body | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)** | Elevates calcium level in the | | | blood by stimulating bone | | | breakdown | | | | | | Stimulates calcium reabsorption | | | in the kidneys and activates | | | vitamin D | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Prolactin** | Stimulates the mammary gland to | | | produce milk | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Adrenocorticotropic Hormone** | Stimulates the secretion of | | | adrenal cortical hormones such as | | | cortisol in humans, and | | | corticosterone in other | | | vertebrateS | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ -------------------------------------------------------- **HORMONES SECRETED BY THE POSTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND** -------------------------------------------------------- - **Oxytocin** - Targets the uterus and brings about uterine contractions during child- birth - regulates the mammary glands for milk ejection - **Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)** - maintains water balance in the body during the process of reabsorption in the kidneys The **Thyroid Gland,** considered as the body's accelerator and located in the neck and secretes two non-steroid hormones: a. Triodothyronine (T3) b. Thyroxine (T4) c. Calcitonin ---------------------------------------- **HORMONES SECRETED BY THYROID GLAND** ---------------------------------------- - **Thyroxin** - Increases metabolic rate - Increases body temperature - Regulates growth and development - **Calcitonin** - Inhibits release of calcium from bones The **Parathyroid Gland**, four small glands located at the four corners of the thyroid gland. -------------------------------------------- **HORMONES SECRETED BY PARATHYROID GLAND** -------------------------------------------- - **Parathyroid hormone** **(parathormone)** - Stimulates release of calcium from bones - It raises blood calcium - Promotes reabsorption of calcium by kidneys **Adrenal Gland (Suprarenal gland)** ---------------------------------------- **HORMONES SECRETED BY ADRENAL GLAND** ---------------------------------------- **Adrenal Cortex (on top of kidney)** - Corticosteroids ( cortical steroids) - Regulates heartbeat - Increases resistance to stress - Promotes muscle development **Adrenal Medulla (central core of the kidney)** - Hormone Adrenaline (epinephrine) - Increases level of sugar and fatty acids in blood - Increases metabolic rate - Nor-adrenaline (norepinephrine) - Contraction of the heart - Constrict some blood vessels **THE PANCREAS\--ISLAND OF LANGERHANS** Positioned in the upper abdomen, just under the stomach ---------------------------------------- **HORMONES SECRETED BY THYROID GLAND** ---------------------------------------- - **Insulin** - Decreases blood glucose level - stops liver from producing more sugar - **Glucagon** - Raises blood glucose levels thus preventing blood sugar levels drop too low The **Gonads** - secretes sex hormones - female gonad (ovary) produces egg - male gonad (testis) produces sperms --------------------------------- **HORMONES SECRETED BY GONADS** --------------------------------- **OVARIES** - **Estrogen** - Development of female - secondary sexual characteristics - Increases vaginal lubrication - Maturation of eggs - Growth of uterine lining - **Glucagon** - Development of uterine lining - Formation of placenta **TESTIS** - **Testosterone** - Stimulates development of genitalia and male secondary sexual characteristics - Stimulates spermatogenesis - Key role in health and well-being as well as in sexual functioning - enhanced libido - increase production of RBC ------------------------------- **OTHER SOURCES OF HORMONES** ------------------------------- **DIGESTIVE TRACT** **Secretin** - Stimulates pancreas to produce water and bicarbonate - Aids in digestion - Stimulates liver to produce bile **Gastrin** - Stimulates insulin release - Smooth muscle contractions of gut, gallbladder, and uterus. **Chlocystokinin** - Causes pancreas to secrete digestive enzymes - Causes gallbladder to contract and release bile **Thymus -**lies beneath the sternum and above the windpipe **Thymosin** - Stimulates maturation of cells of immune system - Promotes the development of antibodies **Pineal Gland** **Melatonin** - Regulates biological clock (sleeping cycle and hormonal changes that usher sexual maturity - Regulate onset of puberty **The *pineal body*, **also called the pineal gland, is located in the middle of the brain. It secretes melatonin, a hormone that may help regulate the wake-sleep cycle. Research has shown that disturbances in the secretion of melatonin are responsible, in part, for the jet lag associated with long-distance air travel. **KIDNEY** **Renin** - produces hormone that regulates blood pressure **Erythropoietin** - stimulates red blood synthesis in the bone marrow **HEART** **Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)** - increases salt and water excretion by kidney - lowers blood pressure ------------------------------------------------ **DISORDERS ASSOCIATED WITH ENDOCRINE SYSTEM** ------------------------------------------------ 1. **Hyperpituitarism** - Gigantism results from the overproduction of growth hormone during childhood or adolescence**.** - General overgrowth of long bones, skeleton and tissue - Marked increase in height and weight - **Progression of untreated acromegaly** - Bone grows wider and thicker - Extremities are enlarged (hands and feet) - Soft tissues on hands or feet enlarged and coarse - Irregular bone growth - Enlargement of the face 2. **Hypopituitarism -** deficiency of pituitary hormones - Dwarfism - lack of growth hormone - Retardation of growth on 1^st^ year, chubby - Lack muscular development, delayed puberty 3. **Congenital Hypothyroidism** - Stunted growth - Mental retardation - Infantile appearance- - Puffy face - Protuberant abdomen 4. **Goiter -** Enlargement of the thyroid gland due to reduced secretion of thyroxine associated with iodine deficiency. 5. **Cushing's Syndrome** - Overactivity of adrenal glands with hypersecretion of [glucocorticoids] 6. **Diabetes Mellitus** - the body is unable to control blood sugar levels - (high level of glucose in the blood) - Common symptoms of diabetes: - Urinating often. - Feeling very thirsty. - Feeling very hungry---even though you are eating. - Extreme fatigue. - Blurry vision. - Cuts/bruises that are slow to heal. - Weight loss---even though you are eating more (type 1) - Tingling, pain, or numbness in the hands/feet (type 2) ----------------------- **SENSATION PROCESS** ----------------------- **Sensation** - When sense organs of the body are stimulated - Interaction between the 4 elements of sensation +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | 4 ELEMENTS OF SENSATION | | ----------------------- | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ 1. Stimuli 2. Receptor 3. Fiber Tract 4. Brain Center +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **TYPE OF STIMULUS** | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **INTERNAL** Stimulus | | | | - Within the body | | | | - include physiological changes, emotional states, or thoughts that | | influence actions. | | | | - Ex: hunger can trigger the desire to eat, while feelings of | | anxiety might lead to avoidance behaviors. | | | | **EXTERNAL** Stimulus | | | | - From the environment | | | | - include environmental factors, social interactions, sounds, | | sights, or any external conditions that affect an individual. | | | | | | | | - **Visual stimuli**: Bright lights or moving objects can attract | | attention. | | | | - **Auditory stimuli**: Sounds, like a siren or music, can prompt | | reactions or emotional responses. | | | | - **Social stimuli**: Interactions with others can influence | | feelings, motivations, and actions. | | | | **THRESHOLD** | | | | - minimum intensity of the stimulus capable for excitation | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **KINDS OF RECEPTOR** | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | **EXTEROCEPTORS** | | | | - sense organs | | | | - **Function**: Detect external stimuli from the environment. | | | | - **Sense Organs**: Include the eyes (vision), ears (hearing), nose | | (smell), tongue (taste), and skin (touch, temperature, pain). | | | | - **Role**: Help organisms interact with their surroundings by | | providing information about external conditions. | | | | **PROPRIOCEPTORS** | | | | - muscles/tendons/joints | | | | - **Function**: Provide information about body position and | | movement. | | | | - **Location**: Found in muscles, tendons, and joints. | | | | - **Role**: Allow for coordination and balance by sensing changes | | in body posture and movement, crucial for motor control. | | | | **INTEROCEPTORS** | | | | - internal organs (visceral organs) | | | | - **Function**: Monitor internal body states. | | | | - **Location**: Found in internal organs (visceral organs) such as | | the heart, lungs, and digestive system. | | | | - **Role**: Help regulate internal processes (e.g., hunger, thirst, | | pain) by providing information about the body\'s internal | | environment. | | | | **Receptors of the SENSES** | | | | Eye -- Rods and Cones | | | | Ear -- Hair Cells | | | | Nose -- Olfactory cells/bulb | | | | Tongue -- Taste Buds | | | | Skin -- Hair Receptors | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ --------------- **HUMAN EYE** --------------- **Scientific Terms:** **Scientific Term for Seeing**: **Vision** or **Ocular Perception**. **Stimuli for Eyes**: **Visual Stimuli**. This includes light waves that the eye detects, allowing for sight. **Receptor for Eyes**: **Photoreceptors**. These are specialized cells in the retina (rods and cones) that convert light into electrical signals. **Nerve for Eye**: **Optic Nerve**. This nerve transmits visual information from the retina to the brain. eyedio +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | PARTS OF THE EYE | | ---------------- | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - **Cornea**: The clear, dome-shaped front surface that helps focus light entering the eye. - **Pupil**: The opening in the center of the iris that regulates the amount of light entering the eye. - **Iris**: The colored part of the eye that controls the size of the pupil. - **Lens**: A flexible structure that focuses light onto the retina, adjusting its shape to accommodate for distance. - **Retina**: A layer of tissue at the back of the eye containing photoreceptors (rods and cones) that convert light into electrical signals. - **Fovea**: A small depression in the retina where visual acuity is highest. It contains a high concentration of cones and is responsible for sharp central vision. - **Optic Nerve**: Transmits visual information from the retina to the brain. - **Optic Disc**: The point where the optic nerve exits the eye; it does not contain photoreceptors, resulting in a blind spot. - **Sclera**: The white, tough outer layer of the eye that provides structure and protection. It is continuous with the cornea at the front of the eye. - **Choroid**: A layer between the sclera and retina that contains blood vessels and pigment. It supplies nutrients to the retina and helps absorb excess light. - **Ciliary Body**: A ring of muscle tissue that controls the shape of the lens for focusing and produces aqueous humor. - **Aqueous Humor**: A clear fluid produced by the ciliary body that fills the anterior chamber of the eye (between the cornea and lens). It helps maintain intraocular pressure and provides nutrients to the eye. - **Canal of Schlemm**: A circular canal located at the junction of the cornea and sclera that drains aqueous humor from the anterior chamber into the bloodstream, helping regulate eye pressure. - **Vitreous Humor**: A gel-like