Psychology 101_ Exam 1 Notes.pdf

Introduction to Psychology Psychology - Scientific study of mind and behavior Biological Cognitive Developmental Social and Mental and Domain Domain Domain Personality Physical Health...

Introduction to Psychology Psychology - Scientific study of mind and behavior Biological Cognitive Developmental Social and Mental and Domain Domain Domain Personality Physical Health Psychology Domain Biopsychology - Focuses on Includes Domain explores how our thoughts and their behavioral Psychopathology biology influences relationship to psychology and Social Psychology - focuses on behavior. Fields of experiences and learning/conditioni - scientific study abnormal behavioral actions ng of how people’s thoughts and neuroscience, - classical thoughts, feelings behaviors cognitive Studies and and behaviors are neuroscience and Language, operant influenced by the Clinical neuropsychology cognition, conditionin actual, imagined, Psychology - are all subfields of memory, g or implied focuses on the biological intelligence presence of diagnosis and psychology Specific study of others treatment of developmental psychological Evolutionary across a lifespan Personal disorders and Psychology - - stages and Psychology - other problematic explores how milestones study of patterns patterns of human behavior of of thoughts and behavior evolved developme behaviors that nt make each Health Sensation and individual unique Psychology - Perception - - Personalit focuses on how research is y trait - a health is affected interdisciplinary consistent by the interaction but there is a pattern of of biological, focus on the thought psychological and physiological and sociocultural aspects of the behavior factors sensory systems, as well as in the psychological experience of sensory information How to Study How effective are these study strategies? Highlighting Low Mnemonic Moderate Device Distributed High Practice Rereading Low Mental Imagery Moderate Long Practice Low Interval Moderate Practice Practice Testing High Summarizing Low Psychological Research Scientific Method - ensures that results are empirical, or grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing Hypothesis - tentative and testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables Theory - well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena Key Components of the Scientific Method Fairness - implies that all data must be considered when evaluating a hypothesis Falsifiable - it should be possible to disprove a theory or hypothesis by experimental results Predictability - implies that a theory should enable us to make predictions about future events Verifiability - an experiment must be replicable by another researcher Categories of Pyschological Research Descriptive Research - research studies that do not test specific relationships between variables; they are used to describe general or specific behaviors and attributes that are observed and measured Correlational Research - tests whether a relationship exists between two or more variables Experimental Research - tests a hypothesis to determine cause and effect relationships Correlational Research Correlation - there is a relationship between two or more variables. We can measure correlation by calculating the correlation coefficient, a number from -1 to +1 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between variables Experimental Design Basic Design - involves two groups: experimental group & control group Random samples - ensure that the groups represent the larger population researcher are studying, necessary to generalize results from our sample to a larger population Random Assignment - control or experimental groups prevents differences between the two groups other than the independent variable being tested, key to drawing cause-and-effect conclusions Double Blind Studies - where researchers and participants do not know which group received the treatment prevent experimenter bias and control for the placebo effect in participants Placebo Effect - is the influence of people’s expectations or beliefs on their experience in a given situation Distributional Thinking Distribution - Analyzing the pattern of variation Graphic Representations Normal Distribution - mathematically defined frequency distribution in which most measurements are concentrated around the middle Skewed Distribution - Non-normal Biopsychology Neurons - cells in the nervous system that communicate with one another to perform information-processing tasks Electric Signaling Resting Potential Action Potential - electrical signal that is conducted along a neuron’s axon to a synapse Neurotransmitters - chemicals that transmit information across the synapse to a receiving neuron’s dendrites Neuron Communication Reuptake - involves moving a neurotransmitter from the synapse back into the axon terminal from which it was released Types and Functions of Neurotransmitters Acetylcholine (Ach) - voluntary motor control Dopamine (DA) - “feel good” Glutamate - “excitatory” GABA - “inhibitory” Norepinephrine (NE) - mood & arousal Serotonin (5-HT) - regulates sleeping, eating & aggressive Bx Endorphins - pain and emotion Oxytocin - attachment Brain Lateralization ➔ Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body ➔ The two hemispheres are connected by a thick band of neural fibers known as the corpus callosum ➔ Corpus Callosum - that allows the two hemispheres to communicate with each other Forebrain, Midbrain, and Hindbrain Location Forebrain: The Lobes of the Brain The Frontal Lobe ➔ Contains the motor cortex - involved in planning and coordinating movement ➔ Contains the prefrontal cortex - high level cognitive functioning ➔ Contains Broca’s area - essential for language production The Parietal Lobe ➔ Contains the somatosensory cortex - processes sensory information  ➔ Organized topographically - that spatial relationships exist in the body are maintained on the surface of the somatosensory cortex The Temporal Lobe ➔ Contains the auditory cortex - processes auditory information ➔ Wernicke’s area - important for speech ➔ Associated with memory and emotion The Occipital Lobe ➔ Contains the primary visual cortex - interprets visual information ➔ Organized retinotopically - a close relationship between the position of an object in a person’s visual field and the position of that objects representation on the cortex The Limbic System ➔ Amygdala - structure involved in our experience of emotion and tying emotional meaning to our memories ➔ Hippocampus - structure associated with learning and memory ➔ Hypothalamus - structure that regulates sexual motivation and behavior and number of homeostatic processes; serves as an interface between the nervous system and the endocrine system Plasticity ➔ Brain’s ability to change, adapt and reorganize itself Brain Imaging Techniques ➔ Computerized Tomography (CT) scan ➔ Electroencephalography (EEG) ➔ Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (FMRI) ➔ Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) ➔ Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scan The Nature of Consciousness ➔ Consciousness has 4 basic properties ◆ Intentionality - being directed toward an object ◆ Unity - Resistance to division Divided attention (like multitasking) ◆ Selectivity - capacity to include some object but not others ◆ Transience - tendency to change ➔ Consciousness ◆ Person’s subjective experience of the world and the mind ➔ Conscious Contents ◆ Mental control - attempt to change conscious states of mind ◆ Thought suppression - conscious avoidance of a thought ➔ Consciousness & Biological Rhythms ◆ Biological Rhythm - internal rhythms of biological activity ◆ Circadian Rhythm - biological rhythm that takes place over a period of 24 hours such as our sleep wake cycle Sleep Adaptive Function - sleep conserves energy or keeps us safe from predation (little research supports) Cognitive Function - sleep is necessary for cognitive function and memory formation REM and NREM Sleep ➔ Rapid Eye Movement Sleep - characterized by darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids ➔ Non-REM Sleep - subdivided into three stages distinguished from each other and from wakefulness by characteristic patterns of brain waves Dreaming Activation-synthesis Theory - dreams are electrical brain impulses that pull random thoughts and imagery from our memories Continual-activation Theory - during REM sleep, the unconscious part of the brain is busy processing procedural memory Threat-simulation Theory - Dreaming repeatedly simulates potential threatening events, thus enhancing the mechanisms required for efficient threat avoidance Expectation-Fulfillment Theory - Dreaming discharges emotional arousals that haven’t been expressed during the day Lucid Dreaming ➔ Parietal, prefrontal cortex and temporal cortex more active during lucid dreaming Psychoactive Drugs ➔ Antipsychotics ➔ Stimulants ◆ Cocaine, amphetamines nicotine, caffeine Increase overall levels of neural activity  Agonists of the dopamine neurotransmitter system ➔ Depressants ◆ Alcohol ◆ Suppress central nervous system activity ◆ Agonists of the GABA neurotransmitter system ➔ Hallucinogens ◆ Marijuana, psilocybin (shrooms), mescaline (peyote), LSD ➔ Opioids ◆ Heroin, morphine, methadone, codeine Decrease pain ➔ Correct neurotransmitter imbalances ➔ Agonists mimic a neurotransmitter at the receptor site and thus strengthen its effects ➔ Antagonists block the normal activity of a neurotransmitter at the receptor Marijuana ➔ Leaves and buds of the hemp plant that produces an intoxication that mildly hallucinogenic Hypnosis ➔ State of extreme self-focus and attention in which minimal attention is given to external stimuli ◆ Dissociation view - dissociated state of consciousness ◆ Social-cognitive theory of hypnosis - people perform a social role Meditation ➔ Clearing the mind in order to achieve a state of relaxed awareness and focus