Big Bang Theory & Nebular Theory PDF

BIG BANG THEORY -Cosmological model that explains how universe began. -Started its expansion about 13.8 Billion years ago. BIG BANG THEORY AND THE BREAD RAISIN MODEL -The bread represents the universe; Raisins are galaxies. -Dots represent galaxies, and not expanding. -Distances in relation to othe...

BIG BANG THEORY -Cosmological model that explains how universe began. -Started its expansion about 13.8 Billion years ago. BIG BANG THEORY AND THE BREAD RAISIN MODEL -The bread represents the universe; Raisins are galaxies. -Dots represent galaxies, and not expanding. -Distances in relation to other galaxies just increases because of the expanding universe. SINGULARITY - The universe started as “singularity”. - Area in the core of a black hole with very high temperature and density. NUCLEOSYNTHESIS - Formation of elements, H and HE. - Led to the formation of stars and galaxies. EVIDENCES THAT SUPPORT THE BIGBANG THEORY - Expansion of the universe(galaxies receding from us). - High abundance of light elements like hydrogen, helium and lithium. - Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation. Proponents - Penzias & Wilson discovered CMB radiation. The Hubbles Law Velocity = Hubbles constant x Distance - The universe was not static but expanding. Proponents - George Henri Joseph Edouard Lemaitre (The idea of expanding universe). - Edwin Powell Hubble, establish the Hubbles Law DRAW BACK OF THE BIG BANG THEORY - Failed to explain how it evolve not where it originated, and galaxies formed..STEADY STATE AND OSCILLATING UNIVERSE THEORY The Steady State Theory - Proposes that the universe has always expanding. THE UNIVERSE ACCORDING TO THE STEADY STATE THEORY - Has no beginning and has no end. - Has always been the same and will always be present. - Always looks the same in anytime and space. - Creates new matter as it continously expands. Proponents - Hermann Boudi, Thomas Gold & Fred Hoyle proposed the steady state theory in 1948. DRAW BACK OF THE STEADY STATE THEORY - Violates conservation of energy and mass. - CMB supports Big Bang. - Cosmic Radiation origin disputed. Oscillating Universe Theory - Also known as pulsating theory - The universe undergoes periods of expansion and contraction. THE BIG CRUNCH - Oscillating universe is a combination of big crunch and big bang. - Universe reaches maximum size and collapses. - Singularity results to a bigbang, birth of new universe. Proponents - Richard Tolman, proposed it. - Called the birth of another universe as the Big Bounce. DRAWBACKS - Violates current laws of physics, suchs as postulated existence of dark energy. NEBULAR THEORY - The solar sytem originated from a nebula. - Widely accepted view of the formation of the solar sytem. 4.5 Billion years ago. - Defined as giant cloud of gas and dust in space. - Contains hydrogen, helium, & ionized gases. Proponents - Emmanuel Swedenborg - Immanuel Kant - Pierre - Simon Laplace MAJOR STEPS IN THE FORMATION OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM STEP 1: Cloud Collapse - Shockwave from supernova causes a cloud space. - The center of the cloud collapses due to gravity; when gas are not enough to support the clouds. - Results to a smaller radius, means it will spin faster. STEP 2: Formation Of Protoplanetary Disk - Metals, Silicates can exist near the sun, because of its higher boiling points. - Result, terrestrial planet containing of these compounds formed. STEP 3: Growth of Planets - Dust and Grains around the sun formed clumps. - Clumps then accreted forming planetesimals. - Small celestial bodies that formed the planets. DRAWBACKS -Some particles should repel, not attract each other. -The Sun should spin faster. ENCOUNTER THEORY -Planets formed from material ejected from the sun during a close encounter with another star. PLANETESIMAL THEORY - A type of encounter theory. - Passing star fomed as the intruding star and protoson nearly collided. - The stars gravity pulled material from protosun; formed planetesimals. - Earth formed from a small, solid mass. Proponents - Thomas Chowder Chamberlin & Forest Ray Moulton. DRAWBACKS - Hot material from the sun dissipates rather than contract. - Force from the passing star will pull dust and gases far away from the sun. TIDAL THEORY -Solar system formed because of near collision between a passing star and sun. - Propose that hot gas from passing star condensed into planets. Proponents. - James Jeans & Harold Jeffreys proposed it. -1918. DRAWBACKS - The hot material either from star cannot contract. - Thus, planets will not form. THE ORIGIN OF PLANET EARTH ACCRETION -One of the leading theories for the formation of earth. -Process the occurs when gravity attracts tiny bits of matter towards an object. STEPS OF ACCRETION Dust - Clumps - Planetesimals - Protoplanet - Planet Protoplanet -Planetary embryo consists collection of matter, which a planet formed. HOMOGENOUS ACCRETION -When accreted from materials of the same composition after condensation. - Evidence; provides mechanisms that explains volatile elements in core. Volatile -Capacity of material to vaporize. HETEROGENOUS ACCRETION - When earth accreted during condensation, forming a differentiated planets. - Evidences; explains the density differences among terrestrial planets. WATER: THE MEDIUM OF LIFE Hydrosphere -Includes of the earth water. Bodies of water - Saltwater (ocean and seas, contains high salt content). - Fresh water (zero to very little salt contenct). Global Freshwater - 2.5% freshwater. - 97.5% saltwater PROPERTIES OF WATER Density - maximum density 0.9998395/ml at 3.98°C. Heat Capacity - relatively high heat capacity, allows it to resist temperature changes. THE ORIGIN OF WATER ON EARTH - Water came from comets that collided with Earth. - Formation as volatile material came from magma. SUN AS THE MAIN SOURCE OF ENERGY Albedo - All objects can either absorb or reflect light. - Value ranges from 0-1. The Sun - Earth Main source of energy. - Plants are dependent on the Sun for photosynthesis. EARTH’S ENERGY BUDGET - 30% energy of the sun is reflected by clouds, atmospehere, and earth’s light colored surfaces. 51% absorbed by earth. 20% scattered and reflected by clouds. 19% absorbed by atmosphere and clouds. 6% scattered from atmosphere. 4% reflected by surface. FACTORS AFFECTING EARTH ENERGY BUDGET - The amount of light colored surfaces. - Amount of radiation received. - Earth’s axial tilt. - Presence of Greenhouse gases. THE EVOLVING CONCEPT OF LIFE - Life is believed to have existed on earth for billions of years now. EVOLUTION OF LIFE - Diversity of life; result of evolution. - Life began atleast 3.5 - 4 billion years ago. -All living things at first were simple. (Single-celled organisms). EARLY FORMS OF LIFE -First form of life appeared 3.5 billion years ago. -First evidence founds in micro-fossils. Micro-fossils - Are tiny remains of plants and animals, only visible under a microscope. Prokaryotes - Earliest life forms, survived extreme conditions and used photosynthesis to produce oxygen. Cyanobacteria - First photosynthetic organisms, leaving recognizable micro-fossils and chemical fossils. - Found in rock 1.5 billion years old. Eukaryotic organisms appeared 1.5 billion years ago. How did multicellular organisms evolve? - Evolve from unicellular eukaryotes through formation of multicellular aggregates and then cell specialization. Multicellular Organisms -Protozoans, sponges, and fungi were the first multicellular organisms. First fossilized animals discovered 580 million years ago, were soft-bodied. Cell Specialization - Led to emergence of plants, animals, and human beings. Fossil evidence supports the evolution of life over time. According to Charles Darwin, organisms change overtime to adapt and survive in their environment. THEORY OF EVOLUTION - Evolution has been a concept since ancient times, with Charles Darwin mostly associated with it/. - Charles Darwin / “On the Origin of Species” in 1859 - theory of evolution by natural selection. - Darwin theory gained acceptance after Alfred Russel Wallace made a similar theory. THE ORIGIN OF LIFE - The most accepted theory among the scientists. - Life came from inanimate matter, specifically a primordial soup if organic molecules. PRIMORDIAL SOUP THEORY - Proposed by Alexander Oparin and John Haldane. - Life began with combination of energy from lightning and chemicals in the atmosphere. THE CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE - Cells are the basic structural and functional units of all living organisms. - Known as the Cell Theory/ - Proposed by Matthias Jakob Schleiden & Theodor Schwann in 19t century. KEY PRINCIPLES OF CELL THEORY - All living organisms are composed of cells. - Cells are the basic units of life. - All cells arise from preexisting cells. - Cells contain genetic information. IMPORTANCE OF CELL THEORY -Unifies Biology. -Provides a framework. -Guides scientific inquiry. PROKARYOTIC CELLS - Lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. EUKARYOTIC CELLS - Have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. CELLULAR PROCESSES Metabolism -Energy conversion and nutrient utilization Photosynthesis -Energy production from sunlight. Protein Synthesis - Operation of proteins from amino acids. Cell Signaling - Communication between cells through chemical signals. Cell Division - Reproduction of cells through mitosis or meiosis. BIOLOGICAL SYSTEM - Complex network of interconnected living organisms and their interactions that functions together as a unified whole. HIERARCHY OF THE BIOLOGICAL SYSTEM Molecules - smallest particle of substances; has all of the physical and chemical properties. - made up of one or more atoms. Organelle - A biological structure that performs a distinctive function inside a cell. Cell - Smallest unit, makes up all living organisms and tissues of the body. - Cell membrane, cytoplasm, & nucleus. Tissue - Group of similar cells that work together. - Four main types; Connective, Epithelial, muscle and nervous tissue. Organism - Single individual form of life. / System of Organs - Network of organs Population - Consists of individuals of the same species. Biocenosis - Key ecological concept. Ecosystem - Dynamic System Biome - Earth’s Ecological Zones Biosphere - Zone of Life on Earth. EXAMPLES OF BIOLOGICAL SYSTEM 1. The Human Immune System. 2. Photosynthesis in Plants. 3. Food webs in Ecosystem. 4. Water cycle in Hydrology. 5. Soil Plant Atmosphere. 6. Carbon Cycle in Earth Science. IMPORTANCE OF STUDYING BIOLOGICAL SYSTEM 1. Unravel complex connections and relationships. 2. Manage natural resources and ecosystem wisely. 3. Develop innovative treatments for diseases. 4. Enhance agriculture practices. 5. Tackle Environmental Challenges like climate change. 6. Drive advancements in biotechnology and bioengineering. INTERACTION WITH ITS ENVIRONMENTAL ENERGY AND LIFE 1. ENERGY SOURCE AND LIFE Photosynthesis -Foundation of energy flow in most ecosystems. -Organism convert sunlight into chemical energy, producing oxygen as a byproduct. Chemo-synthesis -Derive energy from chemical reactions. -Inorganic molecule. -Produce food. -Particular in extreme environments. Consumptions -Animals and humans are the primary producers and consumers in various food chains. 2. ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS Tropic Levels -Energy flows through ecosystem in a hierarchical structure. Producers- plants. Primary consumers - herbivores. Secondary consumers - carnivores. Decomposers - fungi and bacteria. Biogeochemical Cycles -Nutrients and energy are recycled. -Essential for sustaining life and regulating Earth Systems. 3. ADAPTIONS TO ENVIRONMENT Physical adaptations -Organisms adapt physically to their environment for survival. Behavioral adaptations -Organism responds to environmental changes and seasonal variations. 4. IMPACTS OF HUMANS ON ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTS Fossil Fuels -Contribute to pollution and climate change. Renewable Energy -Aims to make environmental impacts and promote sustainability. 5. CLIMATE CHANGE AND ECOSYSTEM Global Warming -Increasing temperatures -Affects weather patters, species distribution, and ecosystem health. Ocean Acidification -Increased C02 levels. -Impacting marine life. 6. CONSERVATION EFFORTS Protected Areas -Establishing nationals parks and wildlife reserves. Sustainable Practices -Promoting sustainable agriculture. Forestry and fishing. Restoration Ecology -Efforts to restore degraded ecosystems. SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION Sexual Reproduction -Formation of offspring from the fusion of gametes. -Fusion (Fertilization) Meiosis -Process makes gametes. Asexual Reproduction - No gametes, no fertilization and no need for both make and female to start with. - Involves only one parent. METHODS OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION - Fission, Budding, Regenerating various parts, Forming spares, Genome and Plantlets, Using Cuttings, Grafting & Cloning. Binary Fission - Many animals and plants use mitosis to produce new cells rapidly. Budding - Resulting from mitosis. - Example in Hydra. - Offspring are all identical to parent Hydra in appearance and genes. Parthenogenesis - The development of an unfertilized egg into an individual. - A non-fertilized egg may develop into a haploid male. - Organisms that don’t have sex chromosomes; fertilized egg will develop into a diploid male. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS - Many plants reproduce asexually through vegetative propagation or bud formation. - Offspring are genetically identical to the parent (clones.) - New plants use stored food until they can photosynthesize. SEXUALLY PRODUCED PLANTS - Apples Varieties; their make-up / genotype differs. - Flower; Colour in the strangling vine varies because plants have different make-up. Sexually Produced Animals - Animals may look alike but they are genetically different. ADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION - Time energy and efficient. - Rapid offspring production. - Favorable traits are passed on. ADVANTAGES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION - Genetic Variation. - Adaptation to changing environments. - Colonization of new areas. DISADVANTAGES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION - Lack genetic variation. - Susceptible to environmental changes. DISADVANTAGES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION - Time and energy spent finding a mate. - Slower reproduction rate. - Result to different quality. ADAPTATIONS -Changes in organisms make them better suited to their environment. NATURAL SELECTION - The force driving the development of adaptive changes in organisms. Improves survival and reproduction success in a given environment. ADAPTATION MUTATION - Controversial theory that explains how an organisms adapts based on mutations. - Yeas cells are an example of organisms that can do this. ARTIFICIAL SELECTION - Humans select favorable traits withing organisms and used then for breeding. TYPES OF ADAPTATION Behavioral Adaptations - Action that help organisms survive. Pysiological Adaptations - Internal body processes for homeostasis. Structural Adaptations - Changes in body features for homeostasis. EVOLUTION - The process by which different kinds of living organisms have developed from earlier forms. Charles Darwin (1809-1882) - Developed the theory of evolution by natural selection. Alfred Wallace (1823-1913) - Also developed the evolution theory. - He begin in the amazon river basin. GENETIC VARIATION - Arises from mutations, gene shuffling, and sexual reproduction, providing diversity. GENETIC DRIFT - Change in frequency of an existing gene variant in the population due to random chance. GENE FLOW - Exchange of genes, through migration or interbreeding keeps genetic diversity high. ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY - Eukaryotic cells evolved when certain prokaryotic cells begin living within larger cells. MICROEVOLUTION - Refers to small scale changes in a population’s genetic make-up over shorter time scales. MACROEVOLUTION - Large scale evolutionary changes over long time periods. EVOLUTION OF VERTEBRATES 1. Fish 2. Amphibians 3. Reptiles and Birds 4. Mammals 5. Mass Extinction and Recovery 6. Mammals and Birds Evolution 7. Human Evolution - Sahelanthropastchadensis - Australopithecus afarensis - Homomabilis - Home evectus - Neanderthais - Penisovans - Homosapiens EVIDENCE THAT EVOLUTION HAPPENED 1. Fossil Rewrd 2. Compensative Anatomy 3. Genetics and Molecular Biology 4. Embryology HOMEOSTASIS -The ability of the body to maintain internal equilibrium. HOMEOSTATIC COMPONENTS Receptors -Monitor changes in the external or internal environment. - Structure of receptors are rich in nerve endings Control Center - Receive messages from the receptors and initiates the response. Effector - Brings about changes needed. HOMEOSTATIC FEEDBACK LOOP - Stimulus is any change in the surrounding of an organism that serve as a signal to respond. AFFERENT - Neuron brings the signal received by the receptors to the inter-neuron. INTERNEURON - Connects to the central system. EFFERENT - Neuron stimulates the different organs of the body to create a proper response. EXAMPLE OF HOMEOSTATIS 1. Temperature Regulation -Controlling body temperature. 2. Solute Concentration - Whenever the body lacks a certain amount of water. THEORIES ON HOW LIFE BEGAN Spontaneous Generation - Life comes from lifeless or nonliving materials. Panspermia - Was seeded from a celestial source. Primordial Soup Theory - Primordial soup of organic molecules. EVIDENCE OF EARLY LIFE -The earth wasa formed for about 4.5 billion years ago. - First life form emerged 3.7 billion years ago. THE TIMELINE OF LIFE - 3.5 bya: photosynthetic organisms - 1.85 bya: eukaryotes - 525 mya: Cambrian explosionm / CYANOBACTERIA - Or the blue green algae are prokaryotic organisms the lack nuclei in their cells. RED ALGAE - The first muticellular organisms are thought to be red algae that appeared 1.2 billion years ago. TRILOBITES - These are ancient arthropods, and are now extinct. ANOMALOCARIS - One of the most dominant animals of the Cambrian Period is the giant Anomalocaris. - Reached up to 6 feet in length. TERRESTRIAL VERTEBRATES - The most ancient terrestial vertebrates were the walking fish. - 400 mya, the first tetrapods appeared. PLANTS - 450 mya, plants began to thrive on land. - 430 mya, vascular plants appeared. - 300 mya, conifers appeared. Erwin Chargaff and Rosalind Franklin - DNA is responsible for neredity in living organisms. James Watson & Francis Crick - Discovered the double helix-structure of DNA upon analysis of existing x-ray crystallography data. STRUCTURE OF DNA - Double-helix, which is two strands that wind around each other to form a twisted ladder shape. Nucleotides - Monomers of DNA. Each nucleotides consists of: - Deoxyripose - Phosphate - Nitrogenous Base Base Pairing Four Bases: Adenine (A) Guanine (G) Thymine (T) Cytosine (C) PAIR PAIR GENE - Segment of DNA that codes for a specific functional protein or a trait. PROTEINS - May catalyze reactions, facilitate transport or transmit messages. CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY - Set of processes (replication and gene expression). Replication - Semi conservative. - Resulting DNA molecules will always have a member of the original strand. Transcription - RNA (ribonucleic acid). - Single strand. - Has the base Uracil (U) instead of thymine (T). Translation - To produce an amino acid sequence. GENETIC ENGINEERING - A biotechnological technique of modifying an organisms genes. BRIEF HISTORY - Trace their roots in agriculture. - (1972) Herbert Boyer & Stanley Cohen performed trans genesis for the first time. - Made the first insulin producing transgenic bacteria. - (1994) Rudolf Idenisch pioneered transgenic in animal science. - Michael Bevan, Richard Flavell, and Mary-Bell Chilton inserted antibiotic resistance gene in tobaco. GENETIC ENGINEERING PROCESS 1. Plamsmid Extraction: Plasmid from Agrobacterium tumefaciens is used, 2. Gene Insertion: Desired gene (e.g., Bt toxin) is inserted into the plasmid. 3. Ligation: DNA ligase joins the gene and plasmid. 4. Transformation: Recombinant plasmid is introduced into bacteria (e.g., E. coli). 5. Selection: Transformed bacteria are selected using markers like antibiotic resistance. 6. Gene Transfer: Bacteria transfer the gene into plant cells. USES OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS; GMO APPLICATIONS: Genetic Modifications has extended its applications: -Agriculture. - Animal Production. - Medicine. - Environmental Protection. AGRICULTURE - Higher resistance to environmental stressors. ANIMAL PRODUCTION - Improved meat quantity and quality and resistance to some diseases. MEDICINE - Can produce hormones, antibodies, and other therapeutic proteins for humans. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION - Bioremediation by processing more environmental contaminants. EXAMPLE OF GMO - BT corn - Bacilius thuringiesis - Golden Rice - Phytoene synthase & carotene desaturase - FLAVR SAVR Tomato - Arctic Salmon - GloFish - Insulin; producing bacteria. - Bioreactor cows and sheep. - Yeast and Bacteria. BENEFITS AND RISKS OS USING GMOs Benefits-Increased Productivity - Greater resistance to pest and diseases. - Have greater yield. Increased Nutritional Quality - Biosynthesis of more nutrients. - Food security tissues in third-world countries. - Improves crops in philippines. DISEASE DIAGNOSIS - Detection of diseases. REDUCTION IN INSECT BIODIVERSITY - Affected by pest resistant plants. ALLERGIC REACTIONS - GMO products have cause allergic reactions in humans. EXPENSIVE SEEDS - Purchase GM crop seeds every year. RELIGION AND ETHICS - Being questioned around the globe. - Scientists have no right to manipulate organisms. ECOSYSTEM - Biotic or living components. *Producers *Consumers *Decomposers -Abiotic or nonliving organisms *Climate Factors *Edaphic Factors.