Criminology Practice Sheet PDF

+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Week 1 | | +===================================+===================================+ | What does criminology seek to | Descriptive problems: Focus on | | ad...

+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Week 1 | | +===================================+===================================+ | What does criminology seek to | Descriptive problems: Focus on | | address? | detailing the nature, extent, and | | | distribution of crime. For | | | instance, how often crimes occur, | | | where they happen, and who | | | commits them. | | | | | | Explanatory problems: Seek to | | | explain *why* crimes occur. This | | | involves identifying causes and | | | contributing factors, such as | | | social, psychological, or | | | economic influences. | | | | | | Policy-testing problems: | | | Evaluate whether specific | | | interventions or policies | | | effectively reduce crime or | | | achieve their intended outcomes. | | | For example, studying the impact | | | of stricter penalties on reducing | | | recidivism. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Research in the field of | Empirical | | criminology is x | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What are the recommendations In | Science | | criminology based on? | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What is the definition of crime? | Violation of societal rules of | | | behaviour as interpreted and | | | expressed by a criminal code. | | | Those who violate are subjected | | | to sanctions. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What are the three factors of | Crime changes: | | crimes dynamic nature? | | | | - Over time | | | | | | - Across context, and | | | | | | - Countries | | | | | | - | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Decriminalization is a result of | Societal changes | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Common crime concepts | - Victimless crime | | | | | | - Organized crime | | | | | | - White collar crime | | | (occupational and corporate) | | | | | | - Hate crimes | | | | | | - Environmental crime | | | | | | - Transnational crime | | | | | | [VOWHET] | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Crime types can be distinguished | - Target | | by | | | | - Motivation | | | | | | - Legality | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Victimlesscrime | - | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Organized crime | - | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | White collar crime (occupational, | - | | corporate) | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Hate crimes | - | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Environmental crimes | - | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Transnational crimes | - | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What are two elements of criminal | Mala prohibita and Mala in se | | conduct? | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Mala prohibita | Crimes that are wrong because | | | they are prohibited by law, not | | | because they are inherently evil. | | | Example: Driving without a | | | license. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Mala in se | Mala in se refers to actions that | | | are inherently wrong or evil, | | | regardless of whether they are | | | prohibited by law. These offenses | | | are universally considered | | | immoral or harmful, such as | | | murder, rape, or theft. The term | | | comes from Latin, meaning "wrong | | | in itself" or "evil in itself." | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Motivations for crime | - Exproperiative | | | | | | - Expressive | | | | | | - Economic | | | | | | - Political | | | | | | [EEEP] | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | The exproperiative motivation for | To obtain resources from another | | crime | person without their knowledge or | | | cooperation | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | The expressive motivation for | To obtain hedonistic resources | | crime | that increase pleasure or | | | decrease displeasure | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | The economic motivation for crime | To obtain monetary resources | | | through profitable illegal | | | cooperative activities | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | The political motivation for | To obtain political resources by | | crime | using a wide variety of tactics | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Crime categories | - Subcategories (e.g. rape, | | | homicide) | | | | | | - Inchoate offences (attempt, | | | aiding and abetting, | | | conspiracy) | | | | | | - Aggrivating/mitigating | | | circumstances | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What does the crime category | Sentencing | | effect? | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Representation of crime in the | Newsworthiness | | media is based on x | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What does the focus on | Highly selective reports, that do | | newsworthiness in the media | not reflect the true nature or | | contribute to? | amount of crime | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What are three examples of medias | - Disproportionate focus on | | portrayal of crime that does not | violent crime | | reflect reality? | | | | - Exaggarated risk of | | | victimisation | | | | | | - Police success of clearing up | | | crimes | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Missing white woman syndrome is | The medias exaggeration of | | | victimisation of especially white | | | females of a higher social status | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Moral panic is | When something is defined by a | | | threat, and gets picked by the | | | media, who builds up the public | | | concern rapidly. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What is the consequence of moral | They feel like they must respond | | panic for the authorities? | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What is the result of moral | The panic recedes or results in | | panic? | social changes | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What are the three ways in which | Through | | the media can contribute to | | | crime? | - Moral panic | | | | | | - Labelling | | | | | | - Deviance amplification | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Two main approaches to measure | - Official crime statistics | | crime | | | | - Self report data | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What does self report data focus | (Potential) victims or | | on in criminology? | perpetrators (e.g. victimisation | | | surveys) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Who collectes the data from | Data collected and registered by | | official crime statistics? | law enforcement agencies such as | | | the police. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What are the limitations of | - Changing definitions, police | | official crime statistics? | practises and recording | | | practises | | | | | | - Attribution: not all crimes | | | end up in the official crime | | | statistics | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Why are not all crimes picked up | - Victims may be unaware | | in official crime statistics? | | | | - No victim (victimless crime) | | | | | | - Not all crimes are reported | | | | | | - Not all crimes are recorded | | | | | | [UVRR] | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Why would a victim not report a | Because they: | | crime? | | | | - Consider it too trivial | | | | | | - Victim feels like police is | | | not able or willing to help | | | | | | - The matter is too embarassing | | | or compromising | | | | | | - Victim is too scared to | | | report | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Why are some crimes not recorded | Because of: | | by police? | | | | - Insufficient evidence | | | | | | - Victim will not press charges | | | | | | - Police judges that the matter | | | is resolved | | | | | | - Lack of wish to pursure it | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What are the strenghts of | - Relatively easily accessible | | official crime statistics? | | | | - Includes all crime types | | | | | | - Good statistics on some | | | crimes, e.g. homicide | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Is the coverage of all crime | No, difference in quality and | | types the same in official crime | coverage. | | statistics? | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Victimisation surveys include | Large and representative samples | | | of population (15-16 years old or | | | over) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What does victimisation surveys | Dark figures of crime | | seek to address? | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What does victimisation surveys | The victims of crime | | seek to bring attention to? | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What does victimisation surveys | - Broad range of crimes | | measure? | | | | - Follow uo questions about | | | nature of crime | | | | | | - Fear of crime | | | | | | - Attitude towards reporting of | | | crime | | | | | | - Demography and lifestyle | | | factors | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What are the strenghts of | - Overcomes issue of non | | victimisation surveys? | reporting and non recording | | | | | | - More accurate measures of | | | actual crime levels | | | | | | - Information about nature and | | | impact of crime | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What are the limitations of | - Sampling | | victimisation surveys? | | | | - Selective non response | | | | | | - Not all crimes are included | | | | | | - Unreliable answers/dark | | | figures | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Why is sampling a limitation of | Not all of them include youth, | | victimisation surveys? | and most are focused on | | | households, excluding the | | | following: | | | | | | Homeless, institutionalized, | | | buisnesses | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What are examples of crimes that | Victimless, corporate and | | are not included in victimisation | environmental crime | | surveys? | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Why is unreliable answers/dark | People may not be aware or | | figures a limitation of | willing. | | victimisation surveys? | | | | People may have a memory decay, | | | such as telescoping. | | | | | | There could be multiple | | | incidents. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What is self-reported offending? | refers to a method of data | | | collection in criminology where | | | individuals voluntarily disclose | | | their own involvem | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Who is self-reported offending | General population, at | | mostly concerned with? | risk-groups or known offender, | | | but: | | | | | | Mostly among youths or young | | | adults | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What are some strenghts of self | - Overcomes issue of non | | reported offending? | reporting and recording | | | | | | - First hand information, | | | combatting dark figures | | | | | | - Pattern of offending can | | | become visible | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What are the limitations of self | - Too much focus on trivial | | reported offending? | acts (antisocial behaviour) | | | | | | - Accuracy of respondents | | | recall of events may vary | | | | | | - Are respondents/offenders | | | entierly truthful? | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Week 2 | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Classicism provides that | - Offenders are rational, | | | calculating, free-willed, | | | normal individuals | | | | | | - The main response to crime is | | | punishment proportionate to | | | offence | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Positivism provides that | - Offenders are pathological | | | individuals driven by | | | biological, psycological, | | | social, or other factors | | | | | | - Uses scientific methodology | | | to measure risk factors | | | | | | - Main response to crime is | | | treatment depending on | | | individual circumstances | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What is the critisism of | - Determinism: fails to account | | positivism? | for individual choice | | | | | | - Differantiation and assumed | | | pathology: can offenders be | | | seperated from non-offenders | | | and is this the result of | | | something having gone wrong | | | for offenders? | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What is the critisism of | - Overlooks incapacity to make | | classisicm? | rational choices | | | | | | - Ignores power structures of | | | inequality | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Rational choice theory | - Focus on individual decision | | | making | | | | | | - Human weight cost and | | | benefits | | | | | | - Determines if crime occurs, | | | and elements of crime (type, | | | time, place, target) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What does the cost and benefit | - Risk of apperhension | | evaluation of rational choice | | | theory concern? | - Seriousness of expected | | | puishment | | | | | | - Investment of time/effort | | | | | | - Potential value of criminal | | | enterprise | | | | | | - Immediate need for criminal | | | gain | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Reflection on rational choice | - Ignores systematic difference | | theory | and structural inequality | | | | | | - Can it be used to explain | | | crime of passion/violent | | | crime? | | | | | | - Are people really rational? | | | | | | - What is rational differs per | | | person | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Routine Activities theory | Motivated offender, suitable | | | target and absence of capable | | | guardian | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Why is routine activities only | After world war two: | | recently developed? | | | | - More time is spent outside of | | | the house | | | | | | - There are more cars and small | | | luxury goods | | | | | | - Women are often alone in the | | | street | | | | | | - Youth are often without | | | parental supervision | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | How is the routine activities | Both to micro and macro level, | | theory applied? | and looks at distributions across | | | space and time | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | A suitable target is measures by | - Value | | these factors | | | | - Inertia | | | | | | - Visibility | | | | | | - Access | | | | | | [VIVA] | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Are the rational choice and | Classicism | | routine activity theories | | | positivism or classicism? | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What is a psycological | The risk factor paradigm | | positivistic theory? | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | The risk factor paradigm | Risk (and protective factors) | | | predict an increased (or | | | decreased) probability of | | | offending | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What are four risk factor | - Individual | | categories? | | | | - Family | | | | | | - Socioeconomic | | | | | | - Community (peers, school, | | | etc.) | | | | | | - | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What are the individual risk | Psychotism -- aggressive, | | factors in the PEN-model? | antisocial, egocentric, | | | impulsive, lack of empathy | | | | | | Extroversion -- assertive, | | | dominant, sensation-seeking | | | | | | Neuroticism -- anxious, low self | | | esteem, moody, shy | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What are the inidvidual risk | - Openess to experience | | factors In the Big 5 Model | | | (OCEAN)? | - Conscientiousness | | | | | | - Extraversion | | | | | | - Agreeableness | | | | | | - Neutrotisism | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What are general individual risk | - Low intelligence | | factors? | | | | - Impulsiveness | | | | | | - Mental health issues | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What are some mental health | There is a high prevalance of | | issues that can be recognized in | mental health problems among | | offenders as a risk factor? | prisioners, namely: | | | | | | - ADHD, conduct disorder | | | | | | - Antisocial personality | | | disorder | | | | | | - Psychopathy | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What are some family risk | - Criminal and antisocial | | factors? | parents | | | | | | - Family dysfunction, conclict, | | | divorce, single-parent | | | | | | - Childrearing methods that are | | | harsh and punitie | | | | | | - Inconsistent discipline | | | | | | - Child abuse and neglect | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What are four learning theories? | - Classical conditioning | | | (Pavlov) | | | | | | - Operant learning (Skinner) | | | | | | - Social learning (Bandura) | | | | | | - Differential association | | | theory (Sutherland) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Classical conditioning (Pavlov) | Behaviour can change when a | | | person or animal learns to | | | connect one thing with another, | | | like hearing a sound and | | | expecting food. | | | | | | -Involuntary | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Operant conditioning (Skinner) | Behaviour is influences by the | | | consequences that follow | | | | | | Reinforcement/punishment can be | | | positive (Adding) or negative | | | (Removing) | | | | | | -Voluntary | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Social learning (Bandura) | Behaviour is learned through | | | observation and imitation of | | | others (models) | | | | | | Models and | | | reinforcement/punishment | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Differential association theory | Criminal behaviour is learned | | (Sutherland) | through contact with social | | | norms, including | | | | | | i. Offending techniques | | | | | | ii. Specific direction of | | | motives, drives, | | | rationalizations and | | | attitudes | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Control theories explain | why people conform and what | | | prevents deviance. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What are two examples of control | - Social bond theory (Hirschi) | | theories | | | | - General theory of crime | | | (Gottfredson and Hirschi) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Social bond theory (Hirschi) | Deviance occurs when an | | | individuals bond to society is | | | weak, undeveloped or broken | | | | | | Those who commit crimes lack: | | | | | | Attachment, commitment, | | | involvement, belief | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What are the social bonds in | - Attachment (friends, family, | | social bond theory? | school) | | | | | | - Commitment (education, | | | career, goals) | | | | | | - Involvement (school | | | activities, sports, social | | | clubs, religious groups) | | | | | | - Belief (honesty, morality, | | | fairness, responsibility) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | General theory of crime | Crime and deviance are the result | | (Gottfredson and Hirschi) | of low self control, which | | | contributes to impulsiveness, | | | temper, egocentrism, etc. | | | | | | Caused by ineffective parenting. | | | (If good at 8 years old, remains | | | good, if bad at 8 years old, | | | remains bad) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Week 3 | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Anomie theory (Merton) | Strain to anomie relationship- | | | | | | Product of the contradiction | | | between the cultural emphasis on | | | pecuniary ambition and the social | | | bars to full opportunity | | | | | | Relative v. absolute deprivation | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Mertons deviance typology | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Anomie theory reflection | - Focus on lower class | | | | | | - Focus on conventional goals | | | (middle clas) | | | | | | - Focused only on social strain | | | | | | - Not casual relationship | | | between strain and deviance | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | General strain theory (Agnew) | - The greater the strain, the | | | higher the chance of deviance | | | | | | - There are three sources of | | | strain | | | | | | - Deviance can be combatted | | | with support, alternative | | | goals and personal traits | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What are the three sources of | - Failing to achieve personal | | strain according to Agnew? | goals | | | | | | - Actual or anticipated loss of | | | positively valued stimuli | | | | | | - Actual or anticipated | | | presentation of negative | | | stimuli | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Main differences between Agnew | Merton: | | and Mertons strain theories | | | | - Economic success as universal | | | goal | | | | | | - One definition of strain | | | | | | - Strain caused by discrepancy | | | between goals and means | | | (micro) and social structure | | | (macro) | | | | | | Agnew | | | | | | - Cultural goals differ | | | | | | - Three definitions of strain | | | | | | - Experiencing strain leads to | | | negative emotions, and crime | | | can be a coping mechanism to | | | this (micro) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | The Chicago social school | - Focus on nature of the city | | | (the social ecology) | | | | | | - Supported by the social | | | disorganization theory | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | The zonal hypothesis (Burgess) | Concentric zones, each being a | | | zone of cultural and social life. | | | One of these being the zone of | | | transition. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | The zone of transition | - Transient population | | | | | | - Poor | | | | | | - Inadequate and deteriorating | | | housing | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | How are the levels of crime in | - They are non-conforming | | the zone of transition? | | | | - Levels of crime, | | | prosititution, infant | | | mortality, poor health and | | | poverty are disproportionate | | | to the rest of the city | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Social disorganization theory | - High levels of delinquency | | (Shaw and McKay) | found in zone of transition, | | | this is a product of social | | | disorganization | | | | | | - Poverty, residential | | | mobility, ethnic heterogenity | | | | | | - (Criminal) cultural | | | transmission | | | | | | - Social disorganization erodes | | | social control | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Subcultural strain theory (Cohen) | - (Criminal) cultural | | | transmission | | | | | | - Status frustrations among | | | lower class boys, created by | | | failure to achieve middle | | | class standards, which causes | | | them to join gangs | | | | | | - Gangs give them support and | | | recognition | | | | | | - Strain leads to shame and | | | frustration, which causes a | | | reaction formation | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Americn subcultural theories | Deviant subculture are distinct | | (Sellin, Wolfagng, Ferracutti, | from mainstream culture, and form | | Miller) | a delinquent solution to the | | | dilemmas as posed by dominant | | | culture. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Culture conflict theory (Sellin) | Adhering to local community | | | norms, which are in conflict with | | | the general social rules results | | | in crime | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Lower class culture conflict | Working class culture is a | | (Miller) | generating factor for delinquency | | | with valyes of trouble, | | | toughness, smartness, excitement, | | | fate and autonomy | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Violence theory (Wolfgang and | In certain subcultures (often | | Ferracutti) | class related), violence is | | | considered as a normal and | | | expected response to challenges | | | of status | | | | | | - Code of the street | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Neutralization theory | Criminal are not pushed into | | | crime, nor do they have | | | distinctivly different norms of | | | values | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Techniques of neutralization | - Denial of responsibility | | | | | | - Denial of injury | | | | | | - Denial of victim | | | | | | - Condemnation of the | | | condemners | | | | | | - Appeal to higher loyalties | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Neutralization theoru (Sykes and | - Dominant morality is accepted | | Matza) | by criminals | | | | | | - Techniques of neutralization | | | are used prior to violation | | | of the law to allow an | | | offender who otherwise | | | accepts moral validity of the | | | law to break it | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Labelling theory | - Crime is a consequence of | | | sanctions and rules | | | | | | - Focus on social reaction to | | | deviance | | | | | | - Labelling influences | | | opportunities and subcultures | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | The process of labelling | Primary deviance | | | | | | - Primary act considered | | | deviant which generated | | | negative social response | | | | | | Labelling process | | | | | | - People start seeing | | | themselves as deviant, and | | | adopts master status as a | | | self fufilling prophency | | | | | | Seciondary deviance | | | | | | - Amplification of deviance | | | | | | - Way of dealing with the label | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Rejecting the label | Easier for those who: | | | | | | - Do not fit the crimnal | | | stereotype | | | | | | - Are treated with leniency by | | | the court | | | | | | - Enjoy social support | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Implications of labelling theory | - Radical non-intervention | | for crime prevention | | | | - Diversion programs | | | | | | - Reintegrative shaming | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | New criminology (Young et al.) | - Crime as a logical response | | | to structural position people | | | find themselves in under | | | capitalism | | | | | | - Capitalism shapes society, | | | creates class conflict and | | | inequality, capitalist law | | | facilitates and conceals | | | crimes of higher class and | | | shapes laws | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Conflict (critical) theories | - Focus on power, relations in | | | society, and how criminal law | | | relates to power differences | | | | | | - Class conflicts -- social | | | order | | | | | | - Law reflects and serves the | | | ruling class | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Implications of conflict theories | Criminologists must commit to the | | | abolition of inequalities of | | | wealth and power | | | | | | Shift the focus of inquiry from | | | crime to social harm | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Week 4 | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Levels of crime prevention | Primary -- aimed at general | | | population | | | | | | Secondary -- aimed at at-risk | | | groups | | | | | | Tertiary -- aimed at known | | | offenders, victims or places | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Types of crime prevention | Situational -- how the | | | environment can be manipulated to | | | prevent or reduce crime | | | | | | Social -- role of individual risk | | | factors, predespositions for | | | crime | | | | | | Community -- role of informal | | | controls, community and social | | | environment | | | | | | - Focus on people | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Situational crime prevention | - Focus on | | | situations/environment | | | | | | - Reducing crime opportunities | | | | | | - Concerned with the | | | management, design and | | | manipulation of | | | environment/situation | | | | | | - Directed at highly specific | | | crime types | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Theoretical underpinnings to | Rational choice theory | | situational crime prevention | | | | Manipulating the advantages, | | | risks or ease or crime | | | | | | Routine activity theory | | | | | | Manipulating likely offenders, | | | suitable targets or the absence | | | of a capable guardian | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Techniques of situational crime | Increase effort | | prevention | | | | Increase risk | | | | | | Reduce rewards | | | | | | Reduce provocations | | | | | | Remove excuses | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Crime prevention though | Management, design, and | | environmental design is concerned | manipulation of environment | | with | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Defensable space theory (Newman) | Social controls increased, and | | | crime is discouraged by: | | | | | | - Territorality (sense of | | | ownership) | | | | | | - Surveillance (natural) | | | | | | - Image | | | | | | - Environment | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Critics of environmental crime | It fails to address root causes, | | prevention | the structural and social | | | conditions need fixing instead. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Social crime prevention | Influencing underlying | | | (individual, social, economic) | | | causes of crime | | | | | | Focus on people | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Types of social crime prevention | Social -- concerned with | | | preventing criminality or | | | criminal propensities from | | | developing within person or | | | group. | | | | | | Community -- concerned with | | | changing social conditions that | | | are believed to contribute to | | | crime in residental areas | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Theoretical underpinnings of | Strain theories | | community crime prevention | | | | Subcultural theories | | | | | | Social disorganization theories | | | (lack of social cohesion) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Theoretical underpinnings of | Risk factor paradigm | | social (Developmental/risk | (developmental criminology) | | focused) crime prevention | | | | Learning theories (e.g. social | | | learning) | | | | | | Control theories (social bonds, | | | low self control) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Broken windows theory | Disorderly behaviour that goes | | | unchecked promotes crime. | | | | | | Neglect, lack of visible | | | ownership and social controls are | | | examples of this. | | | | | | To reduce crime, small | | | misdemeanors must be tackled. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Social crime prevention levels | Ideally: early intervention | | | | | | Often: secondary intervention | | | (at-risk groups) | | | | | | Or: tertiary level (at known | | | offenders) | | | | | | The ones that undergo this are | | | often young, and it is aimed at | | | | | | Individuals (youth) | | | | | | Parents/family/peers and school | | | (social) | | | | | | Socio-economic (community) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Critisisims of social crime | - Correlation does not mean | | prevention | causation | | | | | | - Combination of risk factors | | | | | | - Community programs are | | | complex | | | | | | - Stigma of labelling | | | | | | - Focus on lower class crime | | | | | | - High non-completion rates | | | | | | - Expensive (but not in the | | | long term) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Week 5 | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Police powers | - Stop and search | | | | | | - Arrests | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Risk of police powers | Ethnic profiling | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What does the police do? | Deal with crime (reactive or | | | proactive) | | | | | | Deal with potential crime | | | (proactive measures, such as | | | gathering intelligence, and | | | reactive, such as dealing with | | | minor social disorders) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Models of policing | Community policing -- Response to | | | community demands | | | | | | Problem oriented policing -- | | | Analysing and researching crime | | | related problems | | | | | | Intelligence-led policing -- | | | Ingelligence used in structured | | | manner to solve problems | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Zero-tolerance policy | Response to broken windows theory | | | | | | Tough response to minor crime and | | | disorder | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Police culture | - Hierarchial | | | | | | - Masculine | | | | | | - Machismo | | | | | | - Conservatism | | | | | | - Solidarity | | | | | | - Racial prejudice | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Police corrpution and misconduct | - Bribery | | | | | | - Fabrication/planting of | | | evidence | | | | | | - Concealing crimes | | | | | | - Selling information | | | | | | - Police brutality | | | | | | - Vulnerable to corruption | | | | | | - Organisational problem | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Punishment categories | Consequentlialism | | | | | | - Forward looking | | | | | | - Prevention og future | | | offending | | | | | | Retributivism | | | | | | - Backward looking | | | | | | - Punishment in response to | | | actions already taken | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Consequentalist approaches to | - Deterrence | | punishment | | | | - Rehabilitation | | | | | | - Incapacitation | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Deterrence | Prevention or reduction of crime | | | | | | General or individual deterrence | | | | | | Certainty and severity of | | | punishment (rational choice | | | theory) | | | | | | But the punishment should fit the | | | crime proportionally | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | General deterrence | Aimed at other potential | | | offenders | | | | | | Punishing offender to show others | | | that it is unacceptable | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Individual deterrence | Aimed at those who have offended | | | | | | Harsher sentencing for more | | | crimes committed (e.g. three | | | striked and youre out and | | | mandatort minimum sentence) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Rehabilitation | - Training, treatment, | | | councelling aimed at | | | reforming offender | | | | | | - Tailored to meet the needs of | | | individual | | | | | | - Evidence based interventions | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Incapacitation | - Protecting potential victims | | | | | | - Removing offenders from | | | society | | | | | | - Making offenders physically | | | harmless (e.g. chemical | | | castration) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Retribution | - Punishment is deserved when | | | committing crime | | | | | | - Punishment should be | | | proportionate to crime | | | | | | - Expression of blame and | | | disapproval | | | | | | - Assumed free will of | | | individual | | | | | | - Tariffs -- sentencing | | | guidelines | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Types of sentences | Non-custodial and community | | | sentences | | | | | | Custodial (prison) sentence | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | The aim of non-custodial | Attempt to reduce prison | | sentences is to | population | | | | | | Combat minor crimes | | | | | | Be a cheaper alternative than | | | prison | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Types on non-custodial sentences | Fines (proportionate | | | compensation) | | | | | | Community punishment (unpaid | | | work, supervision, programme, | | | treatment, curfew, exclusion, | | | etc.) | | | | | | Suspended sentence of | | | imprisonment (alternative to | | | short prison stay if requriements | | | of the suspended sentence is not | | | met, then improsonment) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Probation sentence | Oversees community punsihments | | | | | | Supervises and rehabilitates | | | | | | Assists courts with sentencing | | | | | | Tough alternative to imprisonment | | | which limits freedom and reduces | | | reoffending | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Aims of probation and community | Retribution | | sentences | | | | General deterrence (unpaid | | | community work) | | | | | | Rehabilitation (treatment, | | | training, employment) | | | | | | Incapicitation (protecting | | | public, exclusion, supervision, | | | curfew) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Concerns related to prison | - Overcrowding | | sentencing | | | | - Poor conditions and security | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Aim of prison sentencing | Security, control, justice | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Types of prisons | - Open prisons | | | | | | - High security prisons | | | | | | - Young offender institutions | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Five forms of deprivation in | Deprivation of: | | prison | | | | Liberty | | | | | | Goods and services | | | | | | Heterosexual relations | | | | | | Autonomy | | | | | | Security | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Life in prison is influenced by | - High levels of disadvtantaged | | | prisoners | | | | | | - Remand prisoners | | | | | | - Female prisoners (mental | | | health, self harm , history | | | of abuse, responsibility of | | | children) | | | | | | - Violence and victimisation | | | within prisons | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Aims of prison sentence | Proportionality | | (Retributivism) | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Aims of prison sentence | Many will be deterred by the idea | | (Deterrence) | of going back to prison (if not | | | too comfortable) | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Aims of prison sentence | Treatment, education | | (Rehablitation) | | | | But problems after sentence | | | include: | | | | | | - Reoffending | | | | | | - Employment/financial concerns | | | | | | - Accomidation | | | | | | - Weak social bonds | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Aims of prison sentence | States duty to protect the | | (Incapicitation) | public, and potential victims | | | | | | But: | | | | | | - Violence can occur in prison | | | | | | - What about after prison? | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Week 6 | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What is a victim? | Someone who has suffered harm | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | The ideal victim | - Weak (female, very sick, very | | | old or young) | | | | | | - Blameless (innocent) | | | | | | - Unrelated to offender | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Victim-precipitation | The victim provokes or encourages | | | their own victimisation | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Is there usually a relation | Yes, there is. | | between the victim and offender? | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What is an issue related to | Victim blaming, since it takes | | victim-precipitation? | away from the responsibility of | | | the offender | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Victim-offender overlap | When someone is both a victim or | | | offender | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Victimisation surveys consist of | Insight into nature and extent of | | | victimisation | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What does victimisation surveys | An uneven distrobution | | show about the distrobution of | | | victimisation? | - Geographycally (hot spots) | | | | | | - Victim-offender overlap | | | | | | - Social | | | | | | - Gender | | | | | | - Age | | | | | | - Marital status | | | | | | - Social class | | | | | | - Vulnerability | | | | | | - Repeat victimisation | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | The impact of victimisation | - Physical impact | | | | | | - Behavioural impact | | | | | | - Emotional and psycological | | | impact | | | | | | - Financual (direct/indirect) | | | impact | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Secondary victimisation | The sense of victimisation and | | | retraumatization in the criminal | | | justice system | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What measures are put in place to | Specialist services such as: | | prevent secondary victimisation? | | | | - Rape crisis centres | | | | | | - Refugees | | | | | | - Telephone helplines | | | | | | - Training of specialist | | | (female) police officers | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What are the two types of | State based compensation scheme | | compensation for victims? | | | | Court ordered compensation | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Considerations to victims in the | Compensation | | criminal justice process | | | | Victim support | | | | | | Victims rights | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Victims rights | Right to be informed of case | | | progress | | | | | | Change to explain how crime | | | affected them | | | | | | Receive support as witness | | | (especially children) | | | | | | Support by victim-support | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | What is restorative justice? | Parties to the offence address | | | its aftermath and plan for the | | | future together | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+