PPG-REVIEWER-Q1.docx

**PPG REVIEWER Q1** Lesson 1: POLITICS, GOVERNMENT, AND GOVERNANCE MAJOR PROBLEMS - in any attempt to define the term politics 1. Politics as a "loaded term" 2. No standard definition **POLITICS** - Greek work "politeia" or polis which means city - term implying government or citizensh...

**PPG REVIEWER Q1** Lesson 1: POLITICS, GOVERNMENT, AND GOVERNANCE MAJOR PROBLEMS - in any attempt to define the term politics 1. Politics as a "loaded term" 2. No standard definition **POLITICS** - Greek work "politeia" or polis which means city - term implying government or citizenship - people with government as a society or community and the management of public affairs (p.1613 World Book Dictionary Vol.2,1996) Politics is a "power game" that is struggle for power individually or collectively whereby he who is in power may force another to obey with what he wanted him to. - broadest sense: as "the activity through which people make, preserve, and amend the general rules under which they live." 1. **POLITICS AS AN ART OF GOVERNMENT** - the exercise of control within society through the making and enforcement of **COLLECTIVE DECISIONS** - Highly restricted view of politics Many are "OUTSIDE POLITICS" - Etymology - "polis" means "city-state" - Classical - definition "what concerns the polis" - Modern form - "what concerns the state" - Tendency -- focus upon the [personnel and machinery of government ] 2. **POLITICS AS PUBLIC AFFAIRS -** Public sphere vs private sphere Political affairs vs non-political affairs 3. **POLITICS AS POWER** - "HUMAN ACTIVITY of ACQUIRING and MAINTAINING POWER, INFLUENCE AND AUTHORITY for self-preservation or gratification" - Broadest and most radical definition - Politics at work: all social activities and in every corner of human existence - "Power\" - ability to achieve a desired outcome (through whatever means) - Harold Lasswell -- Politics: who gets what?, when and how? (1936) - DIVERSITY and CONFLICT - Scarcity -- essential ingredients - Politics -- "struggle over scarce resources" - Power -- as the means by which struggle is conducted 4. **POLITICS AS COMPROMISE AND CONSENSUS** - POLITICS -- as means of resolving conflict - Compromise, conciliation and negotiation; efficacy of debate and discussion - Society: consensus rather than irreconcilable conflict - Key to Politics: **widespread dispersal of power** **APPROACHES IN DEFINING POLITICS** "as an arena or location" "as process or mechanism" **CHARACTERISTICS OF POLITICS** 1\. Politics always involves the making of collective decisions for a group of people 2\. Those decisions are made by some members of the group exercising power over other members of the group **The difference** **POLITICS** - as a phenomenon; relationship between the government and the people **POLITICAL SCIENCE -** field of study; "study of shaping and sharing of power" -The systematic study of political and governmental institutions and processes GOVERNANCE - the **process** of **decision-making** and the process by which decisions are [implemented (or not implemented]) -  "The **exercise of economic, political, and administrative authority** to manage a country's affairs [at all levels]. It comprises **mechanisms, processes, and institutions** through which [citizens and groups articulate their interests, exercise their legal rights, meet their obligations, and mediate their differences]." -UNDP GOVERNMENT - the **mechanism** through which [ordered rule is maintained] - the **machinery** for [making & enforcing collective decisions] in society & elsewhere - the **institution** composed of [people entrusted] with the [management of public affairs] **ELEMENTS OF GOOD GOVERNANCE** PARTICIPATION - Partake directly or indirectly (having a representative) in every governmental process - Active involvement of sectors of the society in the decision-making RULE OF LAW - **[not]** rule of men - no one is above the law - impartiality of fair legal framework TRANSPARENCY - public information about decision-making process and implementation especially to those directly affected RESPONSIVENESS - institutions and processes try to serve all stakeholders within a reasonable timeframe CONSENSUS -- ORIENTED - mediation of different interests and viewpoints to reach a broad consensus in the society - mechanism for conflict-resolution EFFECTIVENESS & EFFIENCY - produce results that meet the needs of society while making the best use of resources at their disposal EQUITABLE & INCLUSIVE - ALL members of the society must be considered in policy-making - No one should feel alienated - Those who have less in life should have more in law (Social equity) ACCOUNTABILITY - answerability or responsibility of one\'s action - especially when the public interest is involved **LESSON II: POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES** **Ideology** - coined in [1796 by the French philosopher Destutt de Tracy (1734-1836)] - a [manner or the content of thinking characteristic of an individual, group, or culture] - a [more or less coherent set of ideas] that [provides a basis for organized political action], whether this is intended to preserve, modify, or overthrow the existing system of power relationships **Political Ideologies** - form [the basis of how they view the world around them and the proper role of government in the world.] - **Central features:** - offer an account of the existing order, usually in the form of ['world view'] - provide a model of a desired future, a [vision of a Good Society] - outline [how political change can and should be brought about] - At a 'fundamental' level, ideologies resemble political philosophies; at an 'operative" level, they take the form of a broad political movement - link political theory with political practice - political and intellectual renewal: ideologies are by no means hermetically sealed and unchanging system of thought - The end of ideology? Postmodernism implies that conventional ideologies are irrelevant, as they were intrinsically a product of an earlier period of modernization. **POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES (major tenets)** **1. LIBERALISM** - the [product of the breakdown of feudalism and the growth, in its place, of a market or capitalist society] - Feudalism: a system of agrarian-based production characterized by fixed social hierarchies and a rigid pattern of obligations - **Elements:** **a)** I**ndividualism** (core principle of liberal ideology): belief on the supreme importance of the human individual as opposed to any social group or collective body - [Humans are of equal moral worth and possess separate and unique identities] - Liberal goal: construct a society within which individuals can flourish and develop, each pursuing "the good" as he or she defines it, or to the best of his/her abilities **b) Freedom:** Individual freedom or liberty is the core value of liberalism - Arises naturally from a belief in the individual and the desire to [ensure that each person is able to act as he or she pleases or chooses] - "[freedom under the law"] as one person's liberty may be a threat to other's liberty - Individual should enjoy the maximum possible liberty consistent with a like liberty for all **c) Reason** - The world has a rational structure, and this can be uncovered through the exercise of human reason and critical enquiry. - [This inclines them to place their faith in the ability of individuals to make wise judgments] - [**Debate and argument** rather than **bloodshed and war:** Liberals believe in the capacity of human beings to resolve their differences ] **d) Equality** - Belief in [foundational equality (at least in terms of moral worth)] - Equal rights and entitlements in the form political equality and legal equality - Equal opportunity: [gives all individuals an equal chance to realize their unequal potential] **e) Consent** - social relationships [should always be based on consent or willing agreement] - government: 'consent of the governed' - [authority arises from below and is always grounded in legitimacy] **2. CONSERVATISM** - Stood in defense of an increasingly embattled traditional social order - **Elements:** **a) Tradition:** the central theme of conservative thought, ["the desire to conserve,"] is closely linked to the perceived virtues of tradition, respect for established customs, and institutions that have endure through time. - Accumulated wisdom of the past, and the institutions and practices that have been 'tested by time' should be preserved for the benefit of the living and for generations yet to come **b) Pragmatism** - [Emphasizes the limitations of human rationality] (arises from the infinite complexity of the world) - Abstract principles and systems of thought are therefore distrusted - [Faith is placed in experience, history, and above all, pragmatism] (the belief that action should be shaped by practical circumstances and practical goals, that is, by 'what works.' **c) Human imperfection** - Human nature is broadly pessimistic - [Humans are limited, dependent, and security-seeking creatures, drawn to the familiar and tested, and needing to live in stable and orderly communities.] - Individuals are morally corrupt: [tainted by selfishness, greed and thirst for power] - The roots of crime and disorder reside within the human individual rather than in society - The maintenance of order requires a strong state, the enforcement of strict laws, and stiff penalties. **d) Hierarchy** - Gradations of social position and status are natural and inevitable in an organic society - Differing roles and responsibilities - Hierarchy and inequality do not give rise to conflict - Mutual obligations and reciprocal duties **e) Authority** - To some degree, authority is always exercised 'from above,' providing leadership, guidance, and support for those who lack knowledge, experience, or education to act wisely in their own interests - Source of social cohesion - Freedom must coexist with responsibility (willing acceptance of obligations and duties) **3. SOCIALISM** **a) Community** (core of socialism) - the [vision of human beings as social creatures linked by the coexistence of a common humanity] - [nurture over nature] - [individual identity is fashioned by social interaction and membership of social groups and collective bodies] - individual behavior: social [factors rather than innate qualities] **b) Fraternity** - cooperation instead of competition - collectivism over individualism - cooperation enables people to harness their collective energies and strengthen the bonds of community - [competition pits individuals against each other, breeding resentment, conflict and hostility] **c) Social equality** (central value) - Socialism as a form of egalitarianism (the belief in the primacy of [equality over other values]) - [An equality of outcome as opposed to equality of opportunity] **d) Need** - [Material benefits should be distributed on the basis of need rather than simply on the basis of merit or work] - Karl Marx's communist principle of distribution: "from each according to his ability, to each according to his need" - Satisfaction of basic needs is a [pre-requisite] for a worthwhile human existence and participation in social life - Means of harnessing material resources to common good - Private ownership promotes selfishness, acquisitiveness and social division - However, modern socialism has moved away from this narrow concern with the politics of ownership **4. FASCISM** - [Child of 20th century] - Fascist beliefs were fused together and shaped by the First World War and its aftermath, and in particular by the potent mixture of war and revolution that characterized the period - Principal manifestations: Mussolini's Fascist dictatorship in Italy (1922-430), and Hitler's Nazi dictatorship in Germany (1933-45) - Values such as rationalism, progress, freedom and equality were overturned in the name of struggle, leadership, power, heroism, and war - Core theme: organically unified national community ('strength through unity') - Literal sense: individual identity must be absorbed entirely into that of the community or social group - Fascist ideal: the 'new man,' a hero, motivated by duty, honour and sacrifice, prepared to dictate his life to the glory of his nation or race, and to give unquestioning obedience to a supreme leader **5. ANARCHISM** - Challenges the conventional belief that law, government, and the state are either wholesome or indispensable - Central theme: political authority in all its forms, especially in the form of the state, is both evil and unnecessary - Literally means 'without rule" - Stateless society: free individuals manage their own affairs through voluntary agreement and cooperation - Form of both 'ultraliberalism' and 'ultrasocialism': Developed on the basis of two rival traditions (liberal individualism and social communitarianism) - Free and rational human beings would be able to manage their affairs peacefully and spontaneously - Government being merely a form of unwanted coercion **LESSON 3: POWER** **Politics** always involves the exercise of power by one person or persons to another person or persons (Shively, 2012). Power is the ability to get someone to do something he/she wants to accomplish, thus making things happen in the way he/she wants. In having such ability, along with the exercise of power is an influence. Thus, influence is the process by which a person affects the behavior and feeling of another person. In order to influence a person there must be an authority which is the right to change another person. Power is as well a prime ingredient of politics (Roskin et.al., 2012). However, there are instances that power becomes cynical, brutal, and self-destructive that affirmed Lord Acton\'s dictum. \"Power tends to corrupt: absolute power corrupts absolutely.\" **SOURCES OF POWER** 1. **Organizational Power** is a power derived from a person\'s position in an organization and from control over valuable resources afforded by that position - **Reward power.** It is the extent to which a leader can use extrinsic and intrinsic rewards to control and influence other people. - **Coercive power.** It is the degree to which a leader can deny desired rewards or administer punishments to control other people and let them follow his wants. - **Legitimate power.** It is the extent to which a leader can use subordinates\' internalized values or beliefs that the boss has a right of command to control his subordinates\' behavior. That if legitimacy is lost, authority will not be accepted by subordinates. It is otherwise known as formal hierarchical authority. - **Information power**. The leader has the access to and control of information. This complements legitimate hierarchical power. This could be granted to specialists and managers in the middle of the information system. The people may protect information in order to increase their power. - **Process power.** The leader has full control over the methods of production and analysis. Thereby, placing an individual in the position of influencing how inputs are transformed into outputs as well as managing the analytical process used to make choices. - **Representative power.** The legal right conferred to speak by the firm as a representative of a potentially significant group composed of individuals from departments or outside the firm. Helps complex organizations deal with a variety of constituencies. - **Expert power.** The ability to control another person\'s behavior through the possession of knowledge, experience, or judgment that the other person needs but does not have. - Is relative, not absolute. - **Rational persuasion** - The ability to control another person\'s behavior by convincing the other person of the desirability of a goal and a reasonable way of achieving it. - Much of a supervisor\'s daily activity involves rational persuasion. - **Referent power** - The ability to control another\'s behavior because the person wants to identify with the power source. - Can be enhanced by linking to morality and ethics and long-term vision. **[TYPES OF AUTHORITY]** *(Weber in Ethridge & Handelman, 2004)* **1. Charismatic Authority.** It is an influence possessed by person by virtue of their personal magnetism. They have the capacity to gain respect and even adulation to the point of moving followers to make great sacrifices. It flows not from the legal basis of one\'s power but an individual\'s personal \"gifts.\" **2. Rational - Legal Authority.** It is a leadership based on established law. People obey the leader or executive because they accept his or her power under the law. **3. Traditional Authority.** The leadership is based from the culture that is people often give allegiance to the one who occupy the institutional positions. **4. Coercive Authority.** The power to use force such as police or military force to demand obedience from the subordinate.