Philippine Politics, Governance and Citizenship PDF

PHILIPPINE POLITICS, GOVERNANCE AND CITIZENSHIP 1...

PHILIPPINE POLITICS, GOVERNANCE AND CITIZENSHIP 1 Oloroso, Rinoah Mae B. WEEK 1: POLITICS AND GOVERNANCE Therefore, its main concern is to judge what is good or bad in any political society. NATURE OF POLITICS Historical  “Politics exists because people disagree about the aims and - It emphasizes the study of the history of every political reality objects of human endeavor and, probably even more so, to analyze any situation about the methods to be used in achieving them ” (S. G. Institutional Richards, 1978). In his book, The Nature of Politics and - This approach is concerned with the study of formal Government.” structures and institutions like legislature, executive, judiciary,  “A disagreement in which incompatible policies are political parties, etc. advocated can only be resolved ultimately by one side Legal obtaining the power to make its viewpoint prevail over the - This approach is concerned with the legal process, legal other.” bodies or institutions, justice and independence of judiciary.  “The acquisition of power, therefore, is a prerequisite of achieving political objectives.” CHARACTERISTICS OF BEHAVIORAL APPROACH: Regularities – believes that there are certain uniformities in Thus, is the nature of politics. political behavior which can be expressed in generalizations or theories in order to explain and predict political phenomena. DEFINITION POLITICS Verification – emphasizes testing and verifying everything. B. PONTON & P. GILL Politics is the way in which we understand According to behaviorists, what cannot be verified is not scientific. and order our social affairs, and acquire greater control over the Techniques – put emphasis on the use of those research tools situation. and methods which generate valid, reliable, and comparative AMABLE TUIBEO Politics is the strategy for maintaining data. cooperation among people with different needs and ideals in life, Quantification – After collecting data, the researcher should or for resolving the conflict within the group, whether this is a measure and quantify those data. family, a tribe, a village, or a nation-state. Values – believe that to do objective research one has to be HAROLD LASSWELL Political Scientist Harold Lasswell, (1936) value-free. author of a major study of the distributive consequences of Systematization – research in Political Science must be political activity, gave his book the title, Politics--Who Gets What, systematic. Theory and research should go together. When, and How. Lasswell, in effect, defined "politics" as involving Pure Science – believes that the study of Political Science should questions as to "who gets what, when, and how." be verified by evidence. Integration – Political Science should not be separated from THE STUDY OF POLITICS: POLITICAL SCIENCE various other social sciences like history, sociology and POLITICAL SCIENCE – is a classical discipline that deals with economics, etc the study of political phenomena. Its goal is to deepen human understanding of the forms and nature of political action and to IMPORTANCE OF POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT: develop theoretical tools for interpreting politically meaningful  It is very important to care about politics because you should phenomena. It deals with the systematic study of political know what is going on around you. structures, political processes, and political behavior.  Another reason you should care about politics is because you should have a say in what will happen. APPROACHES IN THE STUDY OF DIFFERENT POLITICAL  You should care about politics because the decisions people STRUCTURES AND INSTITUTIONS make will affect many lives. TRADITIONAL APPROACH – is a combination of views on and orientations to politics in philosophical, ethical, and institutional BERTOLT BRECHT terms. “The worst illiterate is the political illiterate, he doesn’t hear, BEHAVIORAL APPROACH – mainly emphasizes on scientific, doesn’t speak, nor participates in political events. He doesn’t know objective, and value-free study of political phenomenon the cost of living, the price of the bean, of the fish, of the flour, the rent, the shoes, and of the medicine, all depend on political VARIOUS FORMS OF THE TRADITIONAL APPROACH: decisions. The political illiterate is so stupid that he is proud and Philosopical swells his chest saying that he hates politics. The imbecile doesn - This approach firmly believes that values cannot be ’t know that, from his political ignorance is born the prostitute, the separated from the study of politics and political system. abandoned child, and the worst thieves of all, the bad politician, corrupted and flunky of the national and multinational companies.”  PHILIPPINE POLITICS, GOVERNANCE AND CITIZENSHIP 2 Oloroso, Rinoah Mae B. GOVERNANCE "state" in his writings. His significant work is titled "Prince".  The word “governance ” came from the Latin verb “ The state is the most universal and powerful of all institutions. gubernare, ” or more originally from the Greek word It is a natural institution. “kubernaein, ” which means “to steer.”  A state is a people organized for law within a definite territory.  It is the complex process whereby some sectors of the society (Woodrow Wilson) wield power and enact and promulgate public policies which  A state is a community of people, more or less numerous, directly affect human and institutional interactions and permanently occupying a definite portion of territory, having a economic and social development. government of their own to which the great body of inhabitants render habitual obedience, and enjoying freedom CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD GOVERNANCE from external control. (James Garner)  Participation – Good governance essentially requires the participation of different sectors of society. Participation ELEMENTS OF THE STATE means the active involvement of all affected and interested parties in the decision-making process. 1. People refer to the mass population living within the state.  Rule of Law – It is through the law that people express their "People" answers the question, "Who governs whom?" will and exercise their sovereignty. That the government is of the law and not of men is an underlying democratic principle  According to Plato, there is no specific number that puts no one, however rich and powerful, above the law. requirement; "... the state shall neither be too small nor  Effectiveness & Efficiency – Effectiveness (meeting the yet one that seems great but has no unity." Aristotle, on needs) and efficiency (proper utilization of resources) must the other hand, says "The number should be neither too necessarily go together to ensure the best possible results for large nor too small; It should be large enough to be self- the community. sufficing and small enough to be well governed."  Transparency – People must be open to information regarding the decision-making process and its 2. The territory is the demarcated area that rightfully belongs to implementation. It also means that transactions involving the population. "Territory" answers the question, "Where?" It public interests must be fully disclosed and made accessible is a definite portion of the surface of the earth, that is the to the public. subject of the jurisdiction and sovereign rights of a state in  Responsiveness – The interests of all citizens must be well accordance with international law. protected in a prompt and appropriate manner so that each of them can appreciate and take part in the process of  There are large and small states. However, the territory governance. should be permanent and large enough to be self-  Equity & Inclusiveness – All members of society, especially sufficing. The Vatican is the smallest with a total land the most vulnerable ones or those at the grassroots level, area of 0.44 km2; Russia is the largest with 17,098,242 must be taken into consideration in policy-making. Everyone km2. has a stake in society, and no one should feel alienated from  There can be no state without a fixed territory. People it. need territory to live and organize themselves socially  Consensus Oriented – Governance is consensus-oriented and politically. Territory refers to the terrestrial (land), when decisions are made after taking into consideration the fluvial/maritime (water), and aerial (airspace) domains. different viewpoints of the actors in society. To reach a consensus, a strong, impartial, and flexible mediation 3. There can be no state without a government. The structure must be established. government is the agency through which the will of the state  Accountability – It means answerability or responsibility for is formulated, expressed, and carried out. one’s actions. The actors have an obligation to explain and be accountable for the consequences of the decisions and  It is an institution or aggregate of institutions by which an actions they have taken on behalf of the community they independent society makes and carries out those rules serve. of action necessary to enable men to live in a social state, or those that are imposed upon the people by those who WEEK 2: THE STATE possess the power or authority of prescribing them. WHAT IS A STATE? 4. Sovereignty is the supreme power of the state to command  The modern term "state" is derived from the word "status". It and enforce obedience to its will from the people within its was Niccolò Machiavelli (1469–1527) who first used the term jurisdiction and, corollary, to have freedom from foreign  PHILIPPINE POLITICS, GOVERNANCE AND CITIZENSHIP 3 Oloroso, Rinoah Mae B. control. The word "sovereignty" means supreme and final  A state cannot become a state without a nation or nations legal authority above and beyond which no legal power that consist of its people. exists. Sovereignty has two aspects: 1) Internal sovereignty,  A single state may consist of one or more nations or peoples, which means that the State is supreme over all its citizens and conversely, a single nation may be made up of different and associations; and 2) External sovereignty, which means states. that the state is independent and free from foreign or outside control. INHERENT POWERS OF THE STATE THEORIES ON THE ORIGIN OF THE STATE  POLICE POWER is the power of the government to enforce obedience from the people in the promotion of public health,  The DIVINE RIGHT THEORY is the oldest theory that holds morals, or safety and the general well-being of the that the state is of divine creation and the ruler is ordained by community. It is the inherent power of government to enact God to govern the people. The rulers of the past advocated and enforce laws for the promotion of the general welfare. the political dominance of authority and power through their  The POWER of EMINENT DOMAIN is the power possessed own ordained mandate that they represent the state on the by the state over all property within the state, specifically its basis of divine right (as God created the state). It was by this power to appropriate property for a public purpose. This is the nature that the divine rights of kings gave them absolute power of the state to take private property for public use with power and influence over their subjects. just compensation.  The NECESSITY or FORCE THEORY maintains that the  The POWER of TAXATION is the inherent power of the state must have been created as a product of the existence sovereign, exercised through the legislature, to impose of the strong and the weak in society and as a result of their burdens upon subjects and objects within its jurisdiction for struggle against each other, wherein those who are strong the purpose of raising revenues to carry out the legitimate are able to dominate and impose their will upon the weak. The objects of the government. This is the power of the state to creation of the state through the constant war and invasion of take private property for public use with just compensation. the great warriors in ancient times dominated the weak and later formed a state. WEEK 3: POLITICAL POWER  The NATURAL or INSTINCTIVE THEORY holds that the state Is founded out of man’s natural instinct for association. POWER Some social scientists define it as the use of force, The social urge of the human being to be within a group of whereas many others explain it as the capacity to secure desired people in the community, as in sociology, describes that "man goals through the use of force or even by exercising influence. is a social being." The social group provides the political - Another definition is from Schwarzenberger, who views development to stay and work together with a common goal power as "the capacity of one to impose his will on others by in the community, which later transforms into a state. reliance on effective sanctions in case of non-compliance. In  SOCIAL CONTRACT THEORY asserts that the early states Social Science and Politics, it is defined as the ability to must have been formed by a deliberate and voluntary outright control the behavior of people. It is an authority when compact among the people to form a society and organize a the power is perceived as legitimate by the social structure. government for their common good. This theory justifies the Power may also be seen as evil or unjust, but the exercise of right of the people to revolt against a bad ruler. power is accepted as reserved only for humans as social beings. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STATE AND NATION NATIONAL POWER is the " combination of power and capability  A state is a community of people occupying a definite of a state that the state uses for fulfilling its national interests and territory, having a government of their own, and enjoying goals, " according to Paddleford and Lincoln. It is simply the ability freedom from external control. ; A nation is a society of or capability of a nation to secure the goals and objectives of its inhabitants of a specific geographic region united and bound national interest in relation to other nations. It involves the capacity together by a common racial ancestry, the same language to use force or the threat of using force or influence over others to and culture, a historical past, laws, and shared interests and secure the goals of national interest. sentiments over the course of many years.  The state is a political concept, while the nation is an ethnic DIMENSIONS OF NATIONAL POWER The three forms of or racial concept. national power are inseparable from each other. Without  A state is not subject to external control, while a nation may economic power, no nation can develop its military power, and or may not be independent of external control. without the latter, no nation can play an active role in international  PHILIPPINE POLITICS, GOVERNANCE AND CITIZENSHIP 4 Oloroso, Rinoah Mae B. relations. Psychological power can be enduring and really change in the behavior of other states. The token support or effective only when it is backed by economic and military power. grant of certain honors to the statesmen, philosophers, artists, scientists, and scholars of other nations also serves 1. MILITARY POWER Military power is an important dimension as psychological rewards intended to keep the other states of national power. It is regarded as absolutely essential for friendly and cooperative achieving the objective of ensuring the security of the nation. 3. PUNISHMENTS A powerful nation can inflict punishment on For every nation, security is the most vital element of its an offending or unhelpful state by imposing economic national interest. It is the primary concern of every nation to sanctions, norms, or policies, placing trade restrictions, or work for its security. Military power is such a vital part of ensuring the denial of a possible reward. A denial or reduction national power. The role and importance of a state in in foreign aid or loans or a refusal to export certain items or international relations depend on its military power. No state technologies can be used by a powerful nation to inflict can get recognition as a superpower without being militarily punishment or pressure on other nations. superior. 4. FORCE/PHYSICAL VIOLENCE Physical force or violence 2. ECONOMIC POWER Economic power is the second can be used by resorting to war or acts of reprisal by a important dimension of national power. It is constituted by the powerful state. A resort to war is the extreme form of force ability of a nation to satisfy its own needs and to control the exercised and a method of last resort in international behavior of other states by affording or denying access to relations. It is a risky and dangerous method that can damage economic goods and services. The economic means of the national power of the state foreign policy are today the most vital means that a state can use to influence the actions and behavior of other states. No AUTHORITY state can become a military power without having adequate  The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics defines authority as economic power. Economic power is used by rich and "the power or right to give orders and enforce obedience; the developed nations to influence other states by granting them power to influence others based on recognized knowledge or economic aid and loans and trying to secure their interests in expertise." international relations. It is used as a means to induce and  "It can most simply be defined as legitimate power. It is, coerce the desired change in the behavior of other states. therefore, based on an acknowledged duty to obey rather 3. PSYCHOLOGICAL POWER It means the power of opinion than on any form of coercion or manipulation. In this sense, and the image of the nation. The role of propaganda and authority is power cloaked in legitimacy or rightfulness". persuasive negotiations in international relations has been used by states to secure an intended change in the behavior TYPES OF POLITICAL AUTHORITY of other states. By using psychological and cultural means, a 1. TRADITIONAL It is the power that is rooted in the traditional, nation always tries to influence the people and leaders of or long-standing, beliefs and practices of a society. It exists other nations. The ability to influence others through and is assigned to particular individuals because of that systematic publicity and educational and cultural relations society’s customs and traditions. The ability and right to rule constitutes the psychological part of the national power of a are passed down, often through heredity. It does not change nation. over time, does not facilitate social change, tends to be irrational and inconsistent, and perpetuates the status quo. In METHODS OF EXERCISING NATIONAL POWER fact, Weber states: "The creation of new law opposite 1. PERSUASION The art of persuasion consists in defining and traditional norms is deemed impossible in principle." logically explaining a particular problem, issue, or dispute to Traditional authority is typically embodied in feudalism or other nations. An attempt is made to persuade other nations patrimonialism. In a purely patriarchal structure, "the servants to adopt a particular and desired view or perception of the are completely and personally dependent upon the lord" , nature of the issues involved in any bilateral or multilateral while in an estate system (i.e., feudalism), "the servants are problem, dispute, or issue. The attempt is to convince others not personal servants of the lord but independent men " about the goodness of the policies of the nation. Diplomacy (Weber 1958, 4). But, in both cases, the system of authority basically uses persuasion to secure support for the foreign does not change or evolve. policy that it represents. 2. CHARISMATIC It is an authority that stems from an 2. REWARDS The offering of rewards can be material, individual’s extraordinary personal qualities and from that economic, or psychological. A nation can give material help individual’s hold over followers because of these qualities. to another nation in times of crisis or in other ways. The Such charismatic individuals may exercise authority over a practice of giving economic aid and easy loans, or grants-in- whole society or only a specific group within a larger society. aid, is another method of winning support and inducing a They can exercise authority for good and for bad, as this brief  PHILIPPINE POLITICS, GOVERNANCE AND CITIZENSHIP 5 Oloroso, Rinoah Mae B. list of charismatic leaders indicates: Joan of Arc, Adolf Hitler, B. AS TO THE EXTENT OF POWERS EXERCISED BY THE Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King Jr., Jesus Christ, CENTRAL OR NATIONAL GOVERNMENT Muhammad, and Buddha. Each of these individuals had extraordinary personal qualities that led their followers to 1. UNITARY GOVERNMENT a government in which the control admire them and follow their orders or requests for action. of national and local affairs is exercised by the central or Charismatic authority is found in a leader whose mission and national government. vision inspire others. It is based on the perceived 2. FEDERAL GOVERNMENT a government in which the extraordinary characteristics of an individual. powers of government are divided between the national and 3. LEGAL-RATIONAL Legal-Rational authority derives from local governments law and is based on a belief in the legitimacy of a society’s laws and rules and in the right of leaders to act under these C. AS TO THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE EXECUTIVE rules to make decisions and set policy. This form of authority AND LEGISLATIVE BRANCHES OF GOVERNMENT is frequently found in modern states, city governments, private and public corporations, and various voluntary 1. PARLIAMENTARY GOVERNMENT a government in which associations. In fact, Weber stated that the "development of the state confers upon the legislature the power to terminate the modern state is indeed identical with that of modern the tenure of the real executive. Legislatures, called officialdom and bureaucratic organizations, just as the result parliaments, operate under a parliamentary system of of modern capitalism is identical with the increasing government in which the executive is constitutionally bureaucratization of economic enterprise. answerable to the parliament. Parliaments usually consist of chambers or houses and are usually either bicameral or WEEK 4: THE GOVERNMENT unicameral. 2. PRESIDENTIAL GOVERNMENT a government in which the CLASSIFICATIONS OF GOVERNMENTS state makes the executive constitutionally independent of the legislature as regards tenure to a large extent. The executive A. AS TO THE NUMBER OF PERSONS EXERCISING branch is led by a president who serves as both head of state SOVEREIGN POWER and head of government. In such a system, this branch exists separately from the legislature, for which it is not responsible 1. MONARCHY is a form of government in which supreme and and which it cannot, in normal circumstances, dismiss. final authority is in the hands of a single person a) ABSOLUTE MONARCHY a government in which the IDEOLOGY is a comprehensive set of normative beliefs, ruler rules the divine right conscious and unconscious ideas, that an individual, group, or b) LIMITED MONARCHY a government in which the ruler society has. rules in accordance with the constitution  Political ideologies can be proposed by the dominant class of c) TYRANNY an autocratic form of rule in which one society, such as the elite, to all members of society. individual exercises power without any legal restraint.  In societies that distinguish between public and private life, d) DICTATORSHIP an authoritarian type of government every political or economic tendency entails ideology, where there is absolute control by one person. whether or not it is propounded as an explicit system of 2. ARISTOCRACY is a form of government in which political thought. power is exercised by a few privileged classes, which are known as the aristocracy or oligarchy LEFT AND RIGHT WING  In an oligarchy, a small group of people has all the power a) LEFT The left-wing ideology typically champions ideals of in the government equality, social justice, and collective responsibility, 3. DEMOCRACY is a government in which political power is advocating for government intervention to address societal exercised by a majority of the people. inequalities and to provide public services. a) DIRECT/PURE DEMOCRACY a government in which b) RIGHT The right-wing ideology primarily champions social the will of the state is formulated or expressed directly conservatism, limited government, and free market and immediately through the people in a mass meeting economics, asserting the importance of personal or primary assembly. responsibility and traditional values. b) INDIRECT/REPUBLICAN a government in which the will of the state is formulated and expressed through a relatively small and select body of persons chosen by the people to act as their representatives.  PHILIPPINE POLITICS, GOVERNANCE AND CITIZENSHIP 6 Oloroso, Rinoah Mae B. POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES  Traditions should not be kept unless they have value. New ideas are helpful because they can lead to progress 1. COMMUNISM in the sciences, the economy, and society.  In a communist society, the central plan economy is the  Liberalism and capitalism go hand in hand. dominant mode of production. This means that the means of  Liberals like the free market because it easily creates production are owned and controlled by the state, rather than more wealth by individual capitalists.  In a communist society, there is no central government. 4. CONSERVATISM  A communist society is one in which the means of  Conservatism is a political ideology or doctrine that production are owned by the community as a whole, and emphasizes the value of traditional institutions and practices. the distribution of goods and services is based on need It is a preference for the historically inherited rather than the rather than profit. abstract and ideal.  It is also an egalitarian society in which there is no place  Stability is a precious thing, and change must be made for inequality. gradually in order to preserve it. Undermining stability is  There is no such thing as private property. very dangerous because societies can easily fall into  The state owns all property and the means of production chaos and violence. and controls the economy. The state centralized  Liberalism is too abstract. It focuses on freedom and economic planning and decision-making. equality, not on the concrete way people live every day, which is the focus of conservatism. 2. SOCIALISM  Humans are frequently ignorant, prejudiced, and  Socialism is an economic system in which the factors of irrational. production are valued in relation to their usefulness to people.  There is no universal answer to the problems of society;  The mantra of socialism is, "From each according to his the circumstances are unique in each country. ability, to each according to his contribution."  Socialists take into account both individual needs and 5. FASCISM greater social needs.  A way of organizing a society in which a government ruled by  They allocate resources using central planning, as in a a dictator controls the lives of the people and in which people command economy. are not allowed to disagree with the government.  Everyone in society receives a share of the production  Fascist regimes are characterized by a strong central based on how much they have contributed, and the authority led by a single charismatic leader who holds system motivates them to work long hours if they want to significant power and often seeks to concentrate power receive more. Workers receive their share of production in their hands. after a percentage has been deducted for the common  Individual freedoms and civil liberties are often restricted good. in the name of national unity and strength.  Human beings are social by nature, and society should  Fascist regimes cultivate images of their leaders as great respect this. Individualism is poisonous. figures to be loved and admired, often through mass  Society, not individuals, should own the property. media and propaganda.  The government plans the economy; there is no free  Fascist governments are anti-democratic, leave little market. room for dissent, and strive to centralize power.  All citizens have roughly the same level of prosperity.  This ideology stands in contrast to liberal democracies 3. LIBERALISM “The best form of government is that which is most likely to prevent  a political and social philosophy that promotes individual the greatest sum of evil.” James Monroe rights, civil liberties, democracy, and free enterprise.  Individuals take priority over society.  Individuals have the right to make choices for themselves.  No person is morally or politically superior to others. Hierarchies are rejected.  Humans are capable of thinking logically and rationally. Logic and reason helps to solve problems.  PHILIPPINE POLITICS, GOVERNANCE AND CITIZENSHIP 7 Oloroso, Rinoah Mae B. WEEK 5: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF THE  Corregimiento – provinces that were not entirely PHILIPPINE GOVERNMENT pacified under Spanish authority led by Corregidor. REVOLUTIONARY PERIOD (1868-1898)  The Propaganda Movement, led by key figures such as Jose Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar, and Graciano Lopez Jaena advocated reforms such that the same rights and freedoms enjoyed in Spain would also be granted to Filipinos.  They also wrote novels, manifestos, and articles that called for reforms.  However, the failure of the propaganda to initiate changes in society gave birth to a secret association (KKK).  As an organization, the Katipunan adopted its own form of government, which had national and local levels.  The Katipunan was governed by the: PRE-COLONIAL PERIOD (BEFORE 1565) SPANISH PERIOD a) Kataastaasang Sanggunian (Supreme Council) (1565-1898) b) Sangguniang Balangay (Provincial Council)  Even before the Spaniards arrived in the Philippines in 1521, c) Sangguniang Bayan (Popular Council ) there already existed a system of governance in the pre- d) Sangguniang Hukuman (Judicial Council) colonial Philippines. Back then, the Philippines was an  Events, however, led to the division of the Katipunan into two archipelago organized into several independent and self- factions: the Magdalo and Magdiwang. sufficient political units known as the BARANGAY. This unit  On March 22, 1897, the Tejeros Convention was called, and is headed by a chief, the DATU. Pre-colonial Period Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo was elected as President.  Also present during precolonial times was the system of  On November 1, 1897, Aguinaldo established the Biak- stratification. The stratification was based on class, which nabato Republic. Its constitution declared the creation of an includes: independent Philippine state. a) Nobility (maharlika) b) Freeman (timawa) AMERICAN PERIOD (1898-1941) c) The Serf (aliping namamahay)  The signing of the Treaty of Paris signaled the end of the d) The Slaves (aliping sagigilid) Spanish-American War.  The treaty involved the United States paying $20 million to SPANISH PERIOD Spain after the latter ceded all as imperial possessions,  Ferdinand Magellan's arrival in the Philippines in 1521 including Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. became the Spanish crown's basis for the occupation of the  William H. Taft became the first civil governor of the archipelago. Philippines. The civil governor acts as the head of the  Thereafter, a number of expeditions were sent to formally executive branch and also exercised legislative powers as the colonize the archipelago. head of the Philippine Commission, a lawmaking body whose  However, it was only during Miguel de Lopez's conquest of members are all appointed. the islands in 1565 that the formal establishment of a colonial  In 1902, the Philippine Act (Copper Act) was enacted, which government took place. provided for the creation of a Philippine legislature.  With his authority based in Manila (Intramuros), the governor-  By 1916, the Philippine Autonomy Act (Jones Law) provided general was likewise an all-powerful individual. for the reorganization of the Philippine legislature into a fully  Recognizing the influence of the datus for the easier elected and Filipino-controlled bicameral body. pacification of natives, the Spaniards appointed the chieftains  In 1934, the Tydings-McDuffie Act (Philippine Independent as the Cabeza de barangay. Act) was ratified by the US Congress.  The unified barangays were composed of the pueblos, which  It established the Philippine Commonwealth, which provided were led by the Gobernadorcillo. for a 10-year transition period that would prepare the Filipinos  The consolidated towns then formed provinces, which could for self-government. be categorized into two categories:  President Manuel Quezon and Vice President Sergio  Alcaldia – provinces fully subjugated headed by Alcalde Osmena headed the first commonwealth government Mayor.  PHILIPPINE POLITICS, GOVERNANCE AND CITIZENSHIP 8 Oloroso, Rinoah Mae B. JAPANESE OCCUPATION (1941-1945) POST-EDSA PERIOD  The Japanese occupation of Manila signaled the  The period from 1986 onward is the period of the restoration establishment of the Japanese Military Administration on of democracy. The fall of the dictatorship marked theshift January 3, 1942. towards re-democratization and a return to constitutionalism.  In an initial move, the Japanese military forces established  A revolutionary government was created following Corazon the Philippine Executive Commission. Aquino's ascent to the presidency.  (PEC), a civil government that would temporarily rule the  When the new Philippine Constitution was ratified in 1987, a country. democratic and republican government was established.  In 1943, a new constitution was promulgated, and the Post-EDSA Period Japanese-sponsored Philippine Republic was established.  The post-EDSA era is also known as the Fifth Republic.  Jose P. Laurel served as its president, also called the Second  Corazon Aquino served as the first president of the Fifth Republic. Republic. Followed by Fidel Ramos, and Joseph Estrada,  Second Republic is commonly referred to as a Puppet after being disposed of by the EDSA People Power Il, Estrada Government. was succeeded by his Vice President, Gloria Macapagal Arroyo, followed by Benigno Aquino III, and Rodrigo Duterte, POSTWAR/THIRD REPUBLIC (1946-1971) the first president to hail from Mindanao.  The structure of postwar Philippine politics and government  Today, the Philippines is headed by another Marcos, the son was founded in the 1935 constitution. of late dictator Ferdinand Marcos Sr  The first president of the third republic was Manuel Roxas, followed by Elpidio Quirino, Ramon Magsaysay, Carlos P. Garcia, Diosdado Macapagal, and the first term of Ferdinand  Marcos Sr. Marcos' second term saw changes in the governmental structure and the ratification of a new constitution in 1973 MARTIAL LAW (1972-1981)  In 1965, Ferdinand Marcos was elected to the presidency, and his administration was characterized by an: a) Increased Agricultural Productivity A. CONSTITUTION OF BIAK-NA-BATO (1897) b) Massive Infrastructure Development  The Katipunan revolution led to the Tejeros Convention c) Defining Diplomatic Policy Martial Law where, at San Francisco de Malabón, Cavite, on 22 March  In 1969, he ran for reelection and succeeded, making him the 1897, the first presidential and vice-presidential elections in only president under the 1935 constitution to be elected for a Philippine history were held—although only the Katipuneros second term. (members of the Katipunan) were able to take part, and not  At that time, however, the country was undergoing worsening the general populace. economic conditions and deteriorating peace and order,  A later meeting of the revolutionary government established social discontent, and a growing communist insurgency. there held on 1 November 1897 at Biak-naBato in the town of  Under the Marcos administration, a new constitution was San Miguel de Mayumo in Bulacán, established the Republic adopted in 1973. of Biak-na-Bato. The republic had a constitution drafted by  The 1973 Constitution provided that the Philippines would Isabelo Artacho and Félix Ferrer and based on the first Cuban have a modified parliamentary form of government. Constitution.  During Martial law, the political rights and civil liberties of the people, as well as their human rights, were suppressed and MALOLOS CONSTITUTION (1899) violated. Although Marcos lifted martial law by 1981, he The Malolos Constitution was the first republican constitution continued to exercise dictatorship powers. in Asia. It declared that sovereignty resides exclusively in the  Calls to end his dictatorial regime brought Filipinos to the people, stated basic civil rights, separated the church and streets to participate in a popular and nonviolent uprising state, and called for the creation of an Assembly of called the EDSA PEOPLE POWER, which ousted Marcos Representatives to act as the legislative body. It also called and ended his dictatorial rule. for a Presidential form of government with the president elected for a term of four years by a majority of the Assembly.  PHILIPPINE POLITICS, GOVERNANCE AND CITIZENSHIP 9 Oloroso, Rinoah Mae B. B. COMMONWEALTH AND THIRD REPUBLIC (1935) D. THE NEW SOCIETY AND THE FOURTH REPUBLIC (1973)  The 1935 Constitution was written in 1934, approved and  The 1973 Constitution, promulgated after Marcos' declaration adopted by the Commonwealth of the Philippines (1935– of martial law, was supposed to introduce a parliamentary- 1946), and later used by the Third Republic of the Philippines style government. Legislative power was vested in a National (1946–1972). It was written with an eye to meeting the Assembly whose members were elected for six-year terms. approval of the United States Government as well, so as to The President was ideally supposed to be elected as the ensure that the U.S. would live up to its promise to grant the symbolic and purely ceremonial head of state from the Philippines independence and not have a premise to hold Members of the National Assembly for a six-year term and onto its "possession" on the grounds that it was too politically could be re-elected to an unlimited number of terms. Upon immature and hence unready for full, real independence election, the President ceased to be a member of the National  The original 1935 Constitution provided for unicameral Assembly National Assembly and the President was elected to a six-  During his term, the President was not allowed to be a year term without re-election. It was amended in 1940 to have member of a political party or hold any other office. Executive a bicameral Congress composed of a Senate and House of power was meant to be exercised by the Prime Minister who Representatives, as well the creation of an independent was also elected from the Members of the National Assembly. electoral commission. The Constitution now granted the The Prime Minister was the head of government and President a four-year term with a maximum of two Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. This constitution consecutive terms in office. was subsequently amended four times. On 16–17 October  A constitutional convention was held in 1971 to rewrite the 1976, a majority of barangay voters (Citizen Assemblies) 1935 Constitution. The convention was stained withmanifest approved that martial law should be continued and ratified the bribery and corruption. Possibly the most controversial issue amendments to the Constitution proposed by President was removing the presidential term limit so that Ferdinand E. Marcos. Marcos could seek election for a third term, which many felt  The 1976 amendments were: was the true reason for which the convention was called. In  an Interim Batasang Pambansa (IBP) substituting for the any case, the 1935 Constitution was suspended in 1972 with Interim National Assembly Marcos' proclamation of martial law, the rampant corruption  the President would also become the Prime Minister and of the constitutional process providing him with one of his he would continue to exercise legislative powers until major premises for doing so. martial law should have been lifted  The Sixth Amendment authorized the President to legislate: C. SECOND REPUBLIC (1943) Whenever in the judgment of the President there exists a  The 1943 Constitution was drafted by a committee appointed grave emergency or a threat or imminence thereof, or by the Philippine Executive Commission, the body whenever the Interim Batasang Pambansa or the regular established by the Japanese to administer the Philippines in National Assembly fails or is unable to act adequately on any lieu of the Commonwealth of the Philippines, which had matter for any reason that in his judgment requires immediate established a government in exile. In mid-1942 Japanese action, he may, in order to meet the exigency, issue the Premier Hideki Tojo had promised the Filipinos "the honor of necessary decrees, orders or letters of instructions, which independence" which meant that the commission would be shall form part of the law of the land. supplanted by a formal republic.  The 1973 Constitution was further amended in 1980 and  The 1943 Constitution remained in force in Japanese- 1981. In the 1981 amendments, the false parliamentary controlled areas of the Philippines, but was never recognized system was formally modified into a French-style semi- as legitimate or binding by the governments of the United presidential system: States or of the Commonwealth of the Philippines and  executive power was restored to the President; guerrilla organizations loyal to them.  direct election of the President was restored;  In late 1944, President Laurel declared a state of war existed  an Executive Committee composed of the Prime Minister with the United States and the British Empire and proclaimed and not more than fourteen members was created to martial law, essentially ruling by decree. His government "assist the President in the exercise of his powers and exiled in December 1944, first to Taiwan and then to Japan. functions and in the performance of his duties as he may After the announcement of Japan's surrender, Laurel formally prescribe;" and the Prime Minister was a mere head of proclaimed the Second Republic as dissolved. the Cabinet.  Further, the amendments instituted electoral reforms and provided that a natural born citizen of the Philippines who  PHILIPPINE POLITICS, GOVERNANCE AND CITIZENSHIP 10 Oloroso, Rinoah Mae B. has lost his citizenship may be a transferee of private  The Commission finished the draft charter within four months land for use by him as his residence after it was convened. Several issues were heatedly debated  In actual practice, while the 1973 Constitution was ideally during the sessions, including on the form of government to supposed to set up a true parliamentary system, the late adopt, the abolition of the death penalty, the continued President Marcos had made use of subterfuge and retention of the Clark and Subic American military bases, and manipulation in order to keep executive power for himself, the integration of economic policies into the Constitution. rather than devolving executive powers to the Parliament, as  The ConCom completed their task on 12 October 1986 and headed by the Prime Minister. presented the draft constitution to President Aquino on  The end result was that the 1973 Constitution - due to all October 15, 1986. After a period of nationwide information amendments and subtle manipulations - was merely the campaign, a plebiscite for its ratification was held on February abolition of the Senate and a series of cosmetic text-changes 2, 1987. More than three-fourths of all votes cast, 76.37% (or where the old American-derived terminologies such House of 17,059,495 voters) favored ratification as against 22.65% (or Representatives became known as the "Batasang 5,058,714 voters) who voted against ratification. On 11 Pambansa" (National Assembly), Departments became February 1987, the new constitution was proclaimed ratified known as "Ministries" , cabinet secretaries became known as and took effect "cabinet ministers" , and the President's assistant - the Executive Secretary - became known as the "Prime Minister. 1987 PHILIPPINE CONSTITUTION and PREAMBLE4 E. "THE 1986 FREEDOM CONSTITUTION”  Following the EDSA People Power Revolution that removed President Ferdinand E. Marcos from office, the new President, Corazon C. Aquino issued Proclamation No. 3 as a provisional constitution. It adopted certain provisions from the 1973 Constitution and granted the President broad powers to reorganize this government and remove officials from office, and mandated that the president would appoint a commission to draft a new constitution. F. BACKGROUND OF THE 1987 CONSTITUTION  In 1986, following the People Power Revolution which ousted PREAMBLE Ferdinand E. Marcos as president, and following on her own "We, the sovereign Filipino people, imploring the aid of Almighty inauguration, Corazon C. Aquino issued Proclamation No. 3, God, in order to build a just and humane society, and establish a declaring a national policy to implement the reforms government that shall embody our ideals and aspirations, promote mandated by the people, protecting their basic rights, the common good, conserve and develop our patrimony, and adopting a provisional constitution, and providing for an secure to ourselves and our posterity, the blessings of orderly translation to a government under a new constitution. independence and democracy under the rule of law and a regime President Aquino later issued Proclamation No. 9, creating a of truth, justice, freedom, love, equality, and peace do ordain and Constitutional Commission to frame a new constitution to promulgate this constitution.” replace the 1973 Constitution which took effect during the Marcos martial law regime. Aquino appointed 50 members to the Commission.  The members of the Commission were drawn from varied backgrounds, including several former congressmen, a former Supreme Court Chief Justice (Roberto Concepción), a Catholic bishop (Teodoro Bacani), and a film director (Lino Brocka). Aquino also deliberately appointed 5 members. After the Commission had convened, it elected its president Cecilia Muñoz-Palma, who had emerged as a leading figure in the anti-Marcos opposition following her retirement as the first female Associate Justice of the Supreme Court