Power and National Political Actors Unit 1 PDF

Power and national political actors Unit 1, 1.1 Area of study 1: SAMPLE Unit 1, Area of Study 1: Power and national political actors On completion of this unit the student should be able to explain the sources of power and legitimacy of national political actors and analyse the political significanc...

Power and national political actors Unit 1, 1.1 Area of study 1: SAMPLE Unit 1, Area of Study 1: Power and national political actors On completion of this unit the student should be able to explain the sources of power and legitimacy of national political actors and analyse the political significance of Australian political actors' use of power in a contested domestic political issue. To achieve this outcome the student will draw on key knowledge and key skills outlined in Area of Study 1. Key knowledge 1 the key concepts: 1.1 power 1.2 legitimacy 1.3 authority 1.4 participation 1.5 popular sovereignty 1.6 parliamentary sovereignty 1.7 federalism 1.8 responsible government 1.9 separation of powers 1.10 political interests 1.11 political perspectives 1.12 political significance 1.13 political stability and/ or change 2 the different types of political actors that may be involved in an issue, such as 2.1 states 2.2 government leaders 2.3 institutions of global governance 2.4 political parties 2.5 media 2.6 non-government organisations 2.7 corporations 2.8 social movements 2.9 groups and individuals 3 different ways of organising formal power within states, such as 3.1 federalism 3.2 responsible government 3.3 the separation of executive, legislative or judicial power 4 the sources of legitimacy of political actors, such as 4.1 democratic processes 4.2 ideology 4.3 coercion 4.4 economic performance 4.5 the impact of these sources on how power is exercised 5 the key political actors in Australia, such as 5.1 the Commonwealth and state governments 5.2 parliaments and leaders 5.3 political parties 5.4 the High Court of Australia 5.5 media 5.6 business 5.7 social movements 5.8 special interest groups SAMPLE 6 the sources and forms of power of Australian political actors that may be involved in an issue, such as 6.1 authority and office 6.2 leadership qualities 6.3 parliamentary sovereignty 6.4 popular sovereignty through elections and referenda 6.5 economic resources 6.6 technological capacity 6.7 military capacity 6.8 diplomatic capacity 6.9 social capacity 6.10 cultural capacity 7 access to power and participation in decision-making in Australia, such as through 7.1 social movements, campaigns, protests and citizen power 7.2 party membership 7.3 submissions to committees 7.4 the media 8 the political significance of key Australian political actors in at least one contested political issue, including the sources and forms of their power, their perspectives and legitimising narratives about contributions to political stability and change, their competing interests and the consequences of the actions taken. Key skills i formulate a range of questions to investigate the source and use of power of national political actors within Australia ii examine sources of information to explain the interests, perspectives and power of national political actors iii explain the sources of legitimacy and power of national political actors iv explain the causes of a contested Australian domestic policy issue v explain the interests of Australian political actors in a contested policy issue vi describe the different political actors' perspectives on an Australian domestic political issue vii explain the consequences of a contested domestic political issue for political stability and/or change in Australia viii discuss the political significance of political actors in Australian domestic politics ix construct an argument about the capacity of political actors to achieve their interests using perspectives and evidence from sources. Key questions What is the source of political power and legitimacy within a state? How do political actors use power to achieve political stability and/or change within states? Who are the key political actors within states and within Australia? How is power legitimised, distributed and used in Australia? SAMPLE Preface In this area of study, students are introduced to the central concepts of power and legitimacy. Power comes in different forms and arises from different sources, such as legal authority, or military, economic, diplomatic, cultural and technological capacities. This capacity can be thought of as 'power to...' do something. Political actors can also use power in more coercive, even illegitimate, ways that can be thought of as 'power over...' other political actors or ordinary people. Students investigate the types of political actors within states including Australia, and the sources and forms of their power. Legitimacy is the belief that an institution, party or ruler has the right to exercise power. This transforms power into authority and is necessary for the maintenance of political stability and the peaceful achievement of change. Legitimacy may be democratic (e.g. through elections), or non-democratic (e.g. through manipulation, fear or economic performance), any of which may provide a kind of consent to being governed over. Domestic political actors may be formal political institutions such as the executive, legislative and judicial branches of government, or groups and individuals outside the formal institutions of government. The sources and forms of power of domestic political actors, and their claimed legitimacy or legitimising narratives, are linked to the type of political system those domestic political actors belong to. In this area of study, students engage with political thinking through the ideas, institutions and processes that underpin the legitimacy of the Australian system of government. Using one example of a contested political issue, students assess the political significance of the use of power by different political actors. This example may be in the context of any of the following: a state or federal election; a federal-state issue; a negotiation between political parties in the Australian parliament; a leadership contest; a community protest or movement; a judicial investigation into an issue or person; a media exposé of an issue, organisation or political actor; a national crisis or responses to a natural, environmental or man-made disaster; or another appropriate example. Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority (VCAA), 2023. 'VCE Politics Study Design, 2024--2028'. vcaa.vic.edu.au/Documents/vce/politics/2024PoliticsSD.docx SAMPLE 1.1 \| Power and national political actors 5 Power and national political actors This chapter will introduce the study of politics by exploring the different types of political actors that may be involved in a political issue. It will also highlight the ideas, institutions and processes that underpin the legitimacy of the Australian system of government and further assess the political significance of the use of power by different political actors in a contemporary context. The key concepts 1.1.1 What do we mean when we talk about politics? Politics can be understood as a cross-disciplinary approach that draws on and incorporates elements of many overlapping and complementary areas of social science, particularly history, ethics, economics, sociology and law. In the most basic sense, politics is about power: who gets what they want and how much of it? Power is the capacity of political actors to exert influence, control or authority over or in relation to other actors. In turn, this helps to determine the extent to which they get to realise their goals and serve their political interests. The expansion of their own power and influence is a common interest among all political actors. The extent to which a political actor's interests are seen as 'good' or 'bad', moral or immoral is subjective and open to interpretation. In other words, it depends entirely on the value or interests of the person making the judgement. Consider the following quotation on justifying 'means' and 'ends': An institution is an established framework for structuring and regulating certain aspects of human social life. Power is an ability to influence outcomes within a system. Political actors are the individuals, groups, institutions or entities that participate in and influence the political processes that determine which decisions, policies and actions are taken. Political interests are the desires, motivations and 'goals' that both shape and drive the behaviour of political actors. Political perspectives are the ways in which political actors see and understand their interests, which are influenced by their ideas, values, experiences and contextual factors. Political change refers to the extent to which political outcomes differ over time, including as a result of the actions of political actors; a lack of change is taken to indicate political stability. Political significance refers to the importance, impact or relevance of a political event, action, decision or actor within the context of a particular society, government or political system. Sociology understanding society, behaviour, structures and institutions Ethics understanding how things are and how they should be Geography understanding how place a ects peoples' experiences and behaviours Communication understanding how meaning is created and distributed History understanding how we got here and what our predecessors did Politics understanding power Law understanding the rules we live by, their creation and their e ects Economics understanding how resources are made and distributed Psychology understanding why people think and behave in particular ways SAMPLE 6 A means can be justified only by its end. But the end in its turn needs to be justified. Leon Trotsky, 1938. Their Morals and Ours, Pathfinder Press, New York. Politics as 'applied ethics' The way political actors and observers understand the nature of right and wrong varies considerably, but this can mostly be looped into the following broad categories: virtue ethics focuses on the character, attributes or intentions of an actor intuitive ethics sees goodness as an inherent sense -- something that can be just known, a 'gut feeling' rights-based ethics focus on the extent to which an actor's behaviour adheres to moral principles or 'rules' consequentialism maintains that morality should be determined based on the outcome or result of an action. The basis of an actor's understanding of ethics forms an important foundation upon which they build and shape their own perspectives, as well as how they understand and justify their own interests. A common way of identifying your own ethical approach is using the thought experiment known as the 'trolley problem', which you can learn more about here: Laura D'Olimpio, 2016. 'The trolley dilemma: Would you kill one person to save five?' The Conversation. theconversation.com/the-trolley-dilemma-would-you-kill-one-person-to-save-five-57111 perspective what do they see? interests what do they want? actor who are they? power what can they do? change what happened? significance what did it matter? SAMPLE 7 1.1 \| Power and national political actors All political actors have varying degrees of capacity (in terms of their potential power and means of influencing others), which they might draw on to advance their interests. The nature and means by which they influence outcomes vary widely, depending on the political actor and the political issue. In this way, a political actor's capacity (or lack thereof) can determine the extent to which they can successfully turn their preferences into reality. This set of mechanisms also determines different actors' ability to either 'push back' on or try to frustrate other political actors' own agendas when their interests are opposed. The types of resources actors can draw on to influence outcomes may be largely economic, technological, military, diplomatic, social or cultural in nature. Political significance involves understanding how a specific political occurrence or individual's role can influence policies, public opinion, social dynamics, governance, or the overall direction of a nation or community. Political actors are considered effective in achieving their interests if they can ensure the results (what they get) match up with their preferences (what they want). Conversely, political actors that fail to achieve results that reflect their preferences are considered ineffective. Political actors are also understood to perform different roles and functions in relation to each other. The interests and actions a particular actor adopts while serving a role may not always be agreeable to other actors operating within the same political system. In this way, competition over roles can be a source of tension between political actors. Readers will note that some of the key concepts outlined in our study design's first key knowledge point are woven throughout the general discussions in our text. This helps to introduce students to key concepts 'in context'. Different types of political actors 1.1.2 There are two types of changes I want to discuss. One is power transition, which is change of power amongst states.... The other is power diffusion, the way power is moving from all states... to non-state actors. Those two things are the huge shifts of power in our century.... The age of the state is over. The state still matters, but the stage is crowded; the state's not alone. There are many, many actors. Joseph Nye, 2010. 'Joseph Nye on global power shifts'. TED (21 min). youtu.be/796LfXwzIUk As noted, political actors can be individuals, groups, institutions or entities involved in any political issue. Our study design invites us to first consider 10 different types of actors, with these types broadly being general in nature rather than specific to Australia. These include the following: A policy is an agreed-upon set of ideas or a 'plan' for how a government or other group will respond in particular situations, typically expressed in statements, laws or other rules. Entities are organisations founded for a particular cause or purpose, such as religion, government, education, professions or social purpose. Capacity is the potential or ability to do something or influence an outcome. SAMPLE 8 States Non-government organisations Government leaders Corporations Institutions of global governance Social movements Political parties Groups Media Individuals Remember as you make your way through this section that actors tend to overlap in many respects. By definition, institutions and entities are comprised of the many individuals who work within them, who have their own sets of interests, perspectives and group affiliations. States 1.1.2.1 Perhaps confusingly, in the study of politics the word 'nation' is often used interchangeably with the term 'state', or sometimes blended into a hybrid term, 'nation-state'. The related term 'country' also gets an honourable mention. Let's try to clarify. A nation is a community of people based on a particular identity. They have common bonds through shared culture, language, history, ethnicity and religion. Nations can be fluid, overlapping and contested concepts. For example, in this country, people of the Yorta Yorta Nation may also identify to some extent with an Australian national identity; similarly, people in Wales might consider it a nation, either part of or exclusive to a wider British national identity. Writing in 1983, Anglo-Irish political scientist Benedict Anderson somewhat controversially characterised nations as 'imagined political communities'. Many nations can and do exist despite not being associated with a corresponding 'state'. For instance, Kurdistan is widely considered a stateless nation whose territory and population are 'split' between the states of Iran, Iraq, Syria and Turkey. The term state refers to something that is both a political community and a territorial entity, and that has the following five characteristics: A state is a political unit that has a permanent population, defined territory, a distinct government and recognised sovereignty; states are traditionally considered the central actor in global politics. SAMPLE 9 1.1 \| Power and national political actors 1 a permanent population 2 defined territory 3 functioning government 4 the ability to engage in relations with other states 5 enjoys international recognition from other sovereign states. The term 'state' is also used to refer to entities that share many of these attributes but exist within a broader nation-state; for example, in Australia, we have the states of Victoria, Tasmania and Queensland. This use of 'state' is best understood as equivalent to the name given to subnational political entities in other parts of the world; for example, Canada and Indonesia are divided into 'provinces', while France has 'administrative regions'. Readers can generally distinguish which sort of 'state' is being referred to depending on what is being discussed. When discussing global politics, we are less likely to be talking about the state of Queensland and much more likely to be referring to the state of Australia. The term country is a far broader term that may be used to refer to any distinct part of the world, which may also be a state, a nation, or any other sort of political entity. States may be largely multicultural like Australia, or they can be more culturally homogeneous like Japan. In turn, culturally homogenous states are commonly referred to as nation-states. The identity of states and their inhabitants may be tied up in questions of culture, language or of civic values, which can be expressed in a variety of ways: whether there is an official (unofficial) national language, or languages what is required from those seeking to become citizens (do they need to demonstrate specific ancestry, have specific knowledge about civic institutions or values, or be from a particular religious group?) the extent to which there are particular skills, levels of wealth or educational attainment that make it easier to become a citizen. Regardless of these variables, if the five criteria for statehood are present, then a state is considered sovereign. In effect, sovereignty represents statehood 'status', whereby a state can exercise exclusive and ultimate control over a geographically defined territory. Despite real differences in size and power, there is a certain formal and legal equality between states, who generally expect one another to respect each other's borders. States can be classified (sorted into 'types') in many ways: How powerful they are relative to others: for example, superpowers have considerable ability to enforce their preferences across the globe, while regional or 'middle' powers are far more constrained in what they can hope to achieve beyond their immediate borders, without the cooperation of other states. Political systems: for example, liberal democracies such as New Zealand or the United States, absolute monarchies such as Saudi Arabia, theocracies such as Afghanistan, as well as many hybrids thereof. Sovereignty is the legitimate or widely recognised ability to exercise effective control over matters in a particular area, or within particular borders. Liberal democracy refers to a form of democracy in which the power of government is limited and counterbalanced by the rights and freedoms of individuals, which are protected by constitutions, established norms and institutions. SAMPLE 10 Economic systems: capitalist systems where property rights and private ownership dominate, such as Switzerland, or where the state or collective interests control economic decisions, such as Cuba, also with many different combinations of elements of both. Degree of stability: for example, the Fragile State Index rated Finland, Norway, Iceland and New Zealand as highly stable, while Somalia and Yemen were considered the most fragile. Levels of wealth and/or income: generally refers to the average income of individuals within a country. Australia is a higher-income country, while neighbouring Timor-Leste's average income is much lower. Depending on where lines are drawn, we can sometimes also talk about countries such as India or China as being 'middle income'. 'The West' and the rest As you work your way through resources touching on the differences between countries, you will recognise several different ways of referring to what we have generally opted to describe as 'higher (or lower) income countries'. Each of these comes with its own set of objections, generalisations and, well, baggage. As with any attempt to divide any set of data from the real world into two or three distinct categories, it is not too hard to find examples that don't seem to fit well into either. For example, Saudi Arabia boasts higher than average per-person incomes and considerable wealth but is still 'developing' and has high rates of economic growth. Geopolitically it aligns with the interests of the liberal democracies of the 'West' more often than not, yet it shares remarkably few of their political characteristics. As mentioned, the idea of 'the West' also has strong political, rather than just economic, connotations. While this use also has its problems (particularly because of how imprecise it can be -- think about whether Australia, Japan or New Zealand can be considered part of the West, given they are all about as east as a country can get from Western Europe), there aren't many good alternatives. This is why the term continues to be widely used in discussions of global politics. the West / the rest the west / the east developed / developing wealthy / poor global north / global south first world / third world advanced / less advanced fat / lean high income / low income high growth / low growth Stability refers to a political system's ability to maintain things as they are, and/or where decisions and changes do not substantially affect the current distribution of power among actors (particularly institutions and governments) within that system. Capitalism refers to a social and economic system where privately owned and operated businesses produce goods and services for a profit; it usually features systems of private property, wage labour, market competition and the accumulation capital (wealth). SAMPLE 11 1.1 \| Power and national political actors Continuity and change in the global order The 'Western world' and US hegemony World affairs over the last 200 years have been dominated by competition between established European great powers including the United Kingdom and France, along with emerging great powers including the United States, Italy, Germany, Russia and Japan. To vastly oversimplify a very complex process, these states rose to power through a process of industrialisation and modernisation, fuelled in part by economic and military domination (including campaigns of dispossession and enslavement) they visited on most of the rest of the world. 'The West' traditionally comprises those parts of the world dominated by the primarily Christian peoples and cultures of Western Europe, who by virtue of their military expansion came to include most of the North American continent (the United States and Canada) as well as Australasia. In broad terms they can be seen as contrasting with other groupings of countries with similar kinds of cultural and regional ties. This includes East Asia and the Indian subcontinent, the Muslim and Orthodox 'worlds', Sub-Saharan Africa and Latin America. Politically, western states are predominantly liberal democracies. Economically, they embrace varying degrees of capitalism. Culturally, they have been informed most by Greco-Roman philosophy, ideas and laws, Judeo-Christian values and traditions, and secular humanist ideals such as individualism and pluralism. Historically, these states have been shaped by developments including the Reformation, the Renaissance and the Enlightenment; experiences of empire and colonisation; revolutions such as those in England, the United States and France; the Industrial Revolution; the two world wars; the Cold War; and the 'war on terror'. In contemporary global politics, the west is associated with, among other things, the Group of 7 (G7) economic forum, Individualism is a perspective that considers the individual as the central and primary actor in society and prioritises individual autonomy and self-reliance. Pluralism is a perspective that recognises and values diversity in society; pluralist societies allow for many different groups, parties and ideologies to coexist and participate in political processes. 73% of world's income 14% of world's population 27% of world's income Top 50 cities by 'quality of life' High security border zone of world's population 86% Future Schengen/EU border line This 'Walled World' map, originally created in 2009, introduced another interesting way of conceptualising 'the West' by highlighting the unbroken line of secure border zones that divide it from the rest of the world. Credit: TD Architects via ''The West' is, in fact, the world's biggest gated community'. Frank Jacobs, 2019. Big Think. bigthink.com/strange-maps/walled-world\> SAMPLE 12 the regional grouping of the European Union (EU), the collective security agreement of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the intelligence alliance of the Five Eyes, and American popular culture. The current rules-based order Following World War II, the west played a significant role in shaping the current rules-based international order, sometimes also referred to as the liberal international order. Both terms beg the questions, whose rules? And who benefits from such an order? In short, they imply a global order framed around US military and economic hegemony, laissez-faire capitalism, rights-based rhetoric and the promotion of liberal democratic political systems. For many non-western states, alternatives to a Westerndominated global order and enormous cultural influence have been keenly sought. The return of China and the rise of BRICS The major global power shifts between states in the early 21st century include the return of China to global superpower status, along with the increasing economic strength of other 'non-western' states. The former has seen China approach, and on some metrics already surpass, the United States in terms of its power and influence, dislodging it from 'hegemon' status. China has sought to develop alternative regional and international structures -- such as the Belt and Road Initiative and the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank -- which have allowed it to reorient a greater proportion of global trade and investment flows. This transition can also be seen in the emergence of a loose coalition of countries known as the 'BRICS', an acronym referring to Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa. Alongside others, such as Saudi Arabia, Nigeria, Turkey and Mexico, each has sought to develop alternative approaches to those favoured by the West. Activity A -- Key concept recap 1 Explain the difference between political interests and political perspectives. 2 Using the knowledge you have gained so far, assess the following statements and mark them as true or false. Statement T F States are comprised of people who speak the same language. Queensland and Tasmania are examples of a nation-state. Political actors are considered effective if they can turn their preferences into outcomes. Countries are like states except that they lack any territory. Laissez-faire refers to governments preferring not to intervene in or interfere with the workings of markets. Hegemony refers to the capacity of a superpower state to dominate the global political order. The five BRICS countries represent around 42 per cent of the world's population and 27 per cent of its economic activity. On both metrics, they are growing rapidly. SAMPLE 13 1.1 \| Power and national political actors Statement T F When a state is 'sovereign', that means it has ultimate authority over its territory. 'Country' can mean any part of the world, regardless of whether it is a state. The G7 is a group of states seeking an alternative to Western dominance. Pragmatism means being concerned with solid and measurable results. Australia is a liberal democracy. Government leaders 1.1.2.2 Government leaders are individuals that represent states on the global stage, and whose decisions and actions steer the direction of the state's foreign and domestic policies. Senior members of the government (in an Australian context, this includes the prime minister and defence, trade and foreign ministers) typically represent states on the global stage. They are considered 'leaders' in that they also have 'followers'. They rely on: the institutions, departments and agencies that make up the 'machinery' of government (more generally) and actually implement government policies the people who work within the government -- sometimes termed 'public servants'. Government leaders also depend on other non-government actors who may lend them various forms of support, including the public at large, who pay taxes or contribute in other ways. In turn, this provides the government with the resources needed to implement government leaders' agenda(s). Government leaders are holders of the most powerful offices in national governments, including heads of state, cabinet ministers, special advisors and other high-ranking government officials; generally, their most senior are termed 'prime minister' or 'president'. US President Joe Biden, Australian Prime Minister Anthony Albanese, Japanese Prime Minister Fumio Kishida and Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi meet as part of 'Quad' talks in Hiroshima. Credit: Kenny Holston/Reuters. SAMPLE 14 Institutions of global governance 1.1.2.3 Institutions of global governance (IGGs) refer to institutions that seek to establish rules, norms and legal arrangements that encourage cooperation between states and assist states in managing their relations with one another. IGGs facilitate and promote multilateral approaches to various challenges. They are seen as the international 'umpires' over designated areas of world affairs, such as international peace and security, global investment flows, trade and criminal matters. Major IGGs include the United Nations (UN), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the International Criminal Court (ICC) and the World Trade Organization (WTO). IGGs are intergovernmental in nature, drawing their membership from states. In effect, they are 'clubs' for states who will join even though they are jealous guardians of their own sovereignty -- this is notably because IGGs offer the possibility of more effective coordination and negotiation with other states. This means that they can, in some sense, be at the mercy of their members, who only cooperate and support them to serve their own perceived interests. As a result, they tend to only be as effective as their member states allow them to be. Global governance offers an alternative approach to the potential chaos of the global political arena, considering the absence of a supreme overriding authority capable of 'keeping the peace' among global actors. It is generally believed that IGGs decrease the possibility of constant conflict (which is a lose-lose situation for everyone), while shaping those tendencies into relatively peaceful strategic competition. Activity B -- States, leaders and institutions 1 In pairs or small groups, research and create a brief eight dot-point biography of four current or recent government leaders (you could choose the four 'Quad' leaders that appear in the photo in the previous section). Note the following: a their background or profession before entering politics b their current position and time served in that role c two policy changes they proposed or pursued during their time in office d which other government leaders opposed the changes they pursued (these might be elected officials from an opposing political party, or leaders from other states). 2 Why do states participate in IGGs? 3 Watch the following video and answer the questions that follow: 'Why are the IMF and World Bank so controversial?' Money Uncharted, 2022 (11 min). youtu.be/IaSdTz2Oi6k a In what ways might the interests of leaders of higher-income countries be served by these two institutions? b In what ways might these IGGs serve the interests of government leaders of lowerincome countries? c Who might object to the policies and behaviour of these institutions (e.g. regarding conditions they enforce on debtor nations while serving as a 'lender of last resort')? d To what extent do you agree with these objections, and why? Multilateralism refers to a system of coordinating relations between three or more global actors, usually in pursuit of specific objectives. Global governance refers to the loose framework of global rules and regulations upheld by the founding of permanent international institutions, the codification of international law and the establishment of international norms (values and principles that inform global standards and expectations). SAMPLE 15 1.1 \| Power and national political actors Political parties 1.1.2.4 Political parties seek to acquire and exercise political power through contesting elections, rallying sympathetic groups and/or taking power through force. Whether they are formally 'in power' or not, parties compete or cooperate with other parties and groups in local, regional and national political settings, and they further seek to influence policy decisions. Political parties typically operate within one-, two- or multiparty systems. As the names suggest, each system identifies both how many political parties typically dominate in a given political environment, as well as how many have a realistic chance of leading a government. In a one-party political system, a single party dominates. It is often aided by various measures that make it difficult or impossible for other parties to form or effectively challenge the ruling party for influence or control over government decisions. Avenues for contesting decisions are generally limited to within the ruling party, which depends on the rules parties themselves use to mediate internal disagreements over policy. This system is often associated with more authoritarian regimes such as China. In a two-party system, two parties dominate formal politics. It is often aided by measures that either filter or 'funnel' dissenting voices and interests (those that might otherwise form the basis of competitive third parties) into effective support for maintaining the binary system. Examples include the United States and, to a certain extent, Australia. In these systems, various legal and electoral measures ensure that candidates from the two dominant parties are typically awarded a larger proportion of the seats available in the legislature (parliament) than their actual share of support from voters. In a multiparty system, more than two political parties can form government. These systems tend to produce coalition governments, where two or more parties with enough combined support in the legislature to be confident about their ability to pass laws agree to cooperate and 'share' government (usually by negotiating a 'coalition agreement'). Multiparty systems tend to be more common in continental European countries. Political parties are formal membership-based organisations that seek to represent particular groups and ideas about how society should be organised. SAMPLE 16 The type of party system a country has is not 'fixed', and each example has its own exceptions. Federally, Australia features elements of both multiparty and two-party systems. For example, the National Party has been in close coalition with the Liberal Party for many decades, and the Australian Greens have been an electorally competitive third party to some extent. Australian state and territory governments have also experienced extended periods of rule by a single party. Notably, the conservative Bjelke-Petersen government in Queensland (1968--87) featured significant changes to laws around elections and press freedom that served to entrench its position; this is not dissimilar in nature from how some one-party systems have emerged in other countries. Media 1.1.2.5 The term media can refer to entities that produce content, as well as the content they produce, and the means by which they distribute or 'broadcast' that content. Together, established media entities can also be understood as an institution. Media entities and the people who work within them are a varied group. They can display a number of different characteristics that often shape how they behave as political actors: they may be involved in traditional (print and broadcast) or digital (online or computer-based) media they may be within companies or organisations of various sizes, along with independent or small-scale producers they may be involved in reporting on factual matters, sharing opinions or ideas, or in creating and sharing fictional stories they may seek to inform, entertain, make money, improve their own social standing or prestige, or otherwise influence peoples' ideas, decisions or behaviour they may be funded by the state, donations, advertising revenue, subscriptions and sales, or be 'cross-subsidised' by other parts of a parent organisation they provide information, including political information -- facts, opinions, or fiction -- to their consumers, the nature of which will be coloured by many of the factors noted above. Prior to the advent of the printing press in the 1440s, only those institutions with the resources to copy out text by hand (like the Catholic Church in Western Europe) could hope to relay ideas to a mass audience -- and even then, this would rely on local elites relaying information to them by literally reading text 'out loud' to assemblies of locals (who themselves were largely illiterate). The spread of the printing press and growing literacy went some way to 'democratising' media, as anyone who could read could buy or borrow a book or be handed a pamphlet. The introduction of radio and television removed even more barriers to mass media consumption. In turn, the digital revolution significantly democratised the production of media, while also allowing for producers and consumers to communicate with one another more directly -- without having to worry about whether a TV network or newspaper (for example) would facilitate. Traditional media refers to means of mass communication that rely primarily on predigital broadcast methods, such as radio, television and print (notably newspapers and magazines). Digital media is any form of communication delivered primarily using computer technology, typically broadcast through a screen and a speaker via the internet. Media is the means by which communication happens between large groups of people. SAMPLE 17 1.1 \| Power and national political actors In enabling the mass communication of ideas among and on behalf of others in society, media as an institution serves several core functions. Media outlets may shape and 'curate' their content in ways that either promote the perspectives and actions of other actors to whom they are sympathetic or undermine those whose values are opposed. In repressive or authoritarian states, the media may be tightly controlled and directed to advance the views or interests of the state. However, in a liberal democracy, a 'free and independent' media is considered a crucial pillar in a well-functioning democratic society. This is because it: allows for a range of ideas and proposals to be exchanged, developed and improved by exposure to criticism, with the idea being that the best ideas will 'rise to the top' provides regular people with information about the behaviour of the political and business elites whose decisions affect everyone creates a forum in which these behaviours and decisions can be scrutinised and discussed. Consequently, elites are thought to be more likely to make better decisions and less likely to engage in ways that are corrupt, unethical or unpopular. Collectively, these functions are part of the idea of the media (as an institution) as the 'fourth estate'. This term, which originated in the 18th century, identified the then-emerging newspaper-based media as complementing the three groups that were traditionally considered to make up a society: the clergy, the nobility, and the common people. Experience also shows that in relatively free democratic societies, the media can be seen performing somewhat less selfless functions: The media sets the agenda: by making decisions about what to report on (and what not to report on), it focuses popular and elite attention on particular events or issues it deems newsworthy. The media shapes public opinion: by presenting issues in particular ways ('framing'), and through repetition, the media prepares ('primes') consumers to draw particular links or conclusions between things. The media directly affects decisions made by policy-makers: because they rely on media to communicate with their audiences, political elites tend to shape their decisions around how they expect to be treated in the media and employ people who specialise in media strategies to assist. Media may seek to persuade consumers of a particular viewpoint by intentionally leaving out facts or perspectives that contradict those viewpoints. This can constitute mis (or dis) information, or propaganda. Across more or less authoritarian states, individual journalists also face particular challenges when their reporting provokes state repression or retaliation from non-state actors, including imprisonment, violence and even death. Credit: Jimmy Margulies, 2018 SAMPLE 18 Press freedom and the perils of journalism Shireen Abu Akleh was a Palestinian-American journalist who had worked for the Al Jazeera Media Network since 1997, lauded for her reporting on the experiences of Palestinians of all religious backgrounds. On 11 May 2022, Israeli forces shot and killed Abu Akleh while she was reporting from Jenin, a Palestinian city in the occupied West Bank. She passed away shortly after being rushed to hospital. She was killed while wearing a press vest and standing with a group of other journalists. Witnesses claimed there was no confrontation between Palestinians and the Israeli army, disputing an Israeli statement referencing the possibility that Abu Akleh had been caught in crossfire. Witnesses also claimed the Israeli army shot at the journalists without asking them to leave or stop filming and maintain it was a direct targeting of the journalists with the intent to shoot to kill. Abu Akleh's funeral was held soon after in East Jerusalem. Israeli police confiscated Palestinian flags from mourners and attacked the procession while her coffin was being carried to a church nearby. Images showed police kicking and hitting people with batons, causing those carrying the coffin to lose balance and drop it to the ground. The windows of Abu Akleh's hearse were also smashed. Following an investigation into police conduct at the funeral, the Israeli media reported that neither the officers nor their commanders would be penalised. Al Jazeera later submitted a formal request to the ICC to investigate and prosecute those responsible for Abu Akleh's death. The Israel Defense Forces later issued an apology for her death. Shireen Abu Akleh, a Palestinian journalist who was shot and killed by Israeli forces while reporting. Credit: Al Jazeera, 2022. w.wiki/78Px Countries with the highest number of imprisoned journalists in 2022. Credit: Adapted from Martin Armstrong/Statista. Data from Reporters Without Borders. statista.com/chart/3310/countries-with-most-imprisoned-journalists China Myanmar Iran Vietnam Belarus Syria Saudi Arabia Egypt Turkey 99 47 62 39 31 27 26 24 24 SAMPLE 19 1.1 \| Power and national political actors Activity C -- The role of the media 1 Select a journalist or group of journalists working in the media who have reported on the actions or decisions of a state or government leader. Then, answer the questions that follow. You may choose to use Shireen Abu Akleh (information provided), one of the following suggestions that include some ideas for initial reading, or choose your own. Peter Greste reports on challenges posed to the Egyptian government by the Muslim Brotherhood: ''It was normal journalism': Peter Greste explains how it all began'. Amnesty International, 2016. amnesty.org.au/peter-greste-explains Bellingcat investigates the alleged poisoning of Russian opposition leader Alexei Navalny: 'Russian agent reportedly divulged poisoning plot to Alexey Navalny'. NowThis News, 2020 (3 min). youtu.be/SWOKwN14QGs 'Russia bans news outlet Bellingcat, labels it a security threat'. Reuters, 2022. reuters.com/ world/europe/russia-bans-news-outlet-bellingcat-labels-it-security-threat-2022-07-15 A whistleblower reveals that Australia's spy agency 'bugged' the offices of Timor-Leste's prime minister to give it an advantage in a dispute over control of lucrative oil and gas fields: Christopher Knuas, 2019. 'Witness K and the 'outrageous' spy scandal that failed to shame Australia'. The Guardian. theguardian.com/australia-news/2019/aug/10/witness-k-and-theoutrageous-spy-scandal-that-failed-to-shame-australia a Outline the actions taken by the state in response to the reporting of your selected journalist. b Which state (and/or government leader's) interests were challenged by their reporting? 2 Why is a free and independent media considered crucial in a well-functioning democratic society? 3 How might the media (either in general or a specific media entity) influence how a government leader or their political party approaches a difficult policy issue? Explain using an example. Non-government organisations 1.1.2.6 Non-government organisations (NGOs) are generally not-for-profit entities that engage in advocacy for issues of concern across local, regional, national and international sectors. While for-profit businesses (regardless of size) are technically not government entities, by convention 'non-government organisation' typically means an entity that is not intended to generate profits for owners or stakeholders. NGOs also differ from political parties in that they do not seek to form government and are free of government influence. That said, they may receive government funding, and due to their status as not-for-profits, they generally do not have to pay as much tax. Some common characteristics of NGOs: they tend to be associated with charitable causes, human rights and humanitarianism they tend to be funded by individual fees paid by members, donations, grants or bequests they tend to be adept users of digital and social media, relying on these platforms to maintain networks and coordinate their activities Non-government organisations are non-profit or charitable groups whose purpose is to address a social or political issue, and who are independent of government. A stakeholder is an individual or entity that has a particular interest in an organisation, process or outcome. SAMPLE 20 they employ a variety of strategies to promote their agenda, including: -- raising awareness and building support among the population -- coordinating with governments and media outlets -- arranging protests and demonstrations -- exerting various forms of moral and diplomatic pressure on other actors, including directly lobbying political leaders and policymakers. they include paid staff, members and activists, along with those more casually or infrequently engaged (people who might sign a petition, give modest one-off donations, or engage with the NGO on social media). Larger NGOs tend to be international in scope, the more prominent examples being: Amnesty International -- focused on combating human rights abuses and unjust imprisonment Greenpeace -- focused on resisting environmental destruction and ecological crises Oxfam -- focused on alleviating poverty and providing famine relief. NGOs tend to overlap significantly in some respects with social movements (discussed later in this chapter). The key difference is that social movements may contain any number of organisations (non-government or otherwise) and individuals who agree with and lend their support to the goals of the movement. In certain instances, social movements may lack significant organisation or structure. Certain types of NGO are more likely to appear as politically active within national or 'domestic' political settings (see the table provided for examples). Types of domestic NGOs Australian examples Trade unions and professional associations Australian Medical Association Retail and Fast Food Workers Union Construction, Forestry, Maritime, Mining and Energy Union (CFMEU) Community service providers Brotherhood of St Laurence Australian Council of Social Services Cancer Council Australia Most schools, universities and hospitals Think tanks The Australia Institute Grattan Institute Centre for Independent Studies Many NGOs (as well as for-profit businesses) seek to influence the political process directly by lobbying key decision-makers. In certain situations, they may seek to use their own advertising (in a sense, transferring economic resources to a media entity in return for use of their technological and cultural capacity; i.e. the ability to broadcast a message) to influence the opinions of the public. You can read more about lobbying in an Australian context here: Nick Evershed and Christopher Knaus, 2018. 'Lobbying in Australia: How big business connects to government'. The Guardian. theguardian.com/australia-news/ng-interactive/2018/sep/19/ lobbying-in-australia-how-big-business-connects-to-government Lobbying refers to the practice of attempting to influence the actions, policies or decisions of government officials. SAMPLE 21 1.1 \| Power and national political actors Corporations 1.1.2.7 Corporations as political actors tend to be larger businesses with significant economic power and influence. They may or may not be located entirely within a specific nation-state. Transnational corporations (TNCs) are characterised by their considerable and increasing dominance over the production and trade of goods and services on a global scale. The development of less restrictive attitudes and rules regarding interstate economic relationships, along with significant technological changes, have allowed corporations to pursue their goals of profit maximisation with fewer constraints. Corporations tend to: seek to lower their production costs by sourcing inputs (including worker time and skills, materials, equipment and investment) in ways that provide the best dollar-for-dollar value for a company seek to increase their sales, turning what they have produced into something that returns a profit; this also allows for cheaper production per unit and (if sales come at the expense of another producer) reduces the ongoing viability of their competitors be managed by a CEO and other officeholders in a defined and hierarchical structure, answerable to a board of directors, who, in turn, are elected by shareholders disburse their profits to shareholders use various strategies to manage and insulate themselves from risks to their flow of profit -- including using their economic resources to incentivise the cooperation of other political actors. Corporations are entities that conduct business operations in pursuit of profit; they may be owned or controlled by wealthy individuals, shareholders, governments, or some combination thereof. Transnational corporations are entities that conduct their operations across multiple states and, due to their size, can have a significant influence on flows of global production, trade, commerce and investment. Amnesty International supporters march in support of refugees as part of that organisation\'s contingent in the Palm Sunday Walk for Justice and Freedom for Refugees in Melbourne in 2022. Credit: Amnesty International. SAMPLE 22 In addition to these characteristics, TNCs also tend to: specialise in particular industries, such as mining, agriculture, fossil fuels, manufacturing (including motor vehicles, computers, clothing and components thereof), medicine, media and IT structure their operations in a way that allows them to pay fewer taxes -- including relocating elements of their business to different countries offering more favourable treatment have an even wider global 'menu' from which to choose their inputs -- particularly, where they base their operations, and which labour markets they draw their workers from include complex webs of subsidiary and affiliate entities (usually other companies) seek to acquire other companies and business (including other TNCs or parts thereof), or otherwise expand their operations into new markets. A 2016 analysis by the World Bank estimated that TNCs and their affiliates produced 36 per cent of the value of total global output, accounting for around two-thirds of global exports and more than half of all imports. For these reasons, in some contexts, TNCs are criticised for being predatory and exploitative because of how they tend to engage with lower-income 'host' states who are in need of investment. TNCs can use their wealth and influence as leverage to pressure governments to relax laws or provide special treatment regarding conditions for workers and/or environmental regulations. This can extend to ongoing political influence within a hosting country, where political elites may grant further favours in return for financial support from TNCs, which can be used to fund election campaigns. TNCs are skilled at expanding into markets of goods and services that were previously seen as the domain of domestic (mononational) producers. For example, four corporations -- Bayer, Corteva, ChemChina and Limagrain -- control more than 50 per cent of the world's seeds, dominating global food supply. 'Big tech' firms similarly exert enormous influence over communications infrastructure as well as hosting and having access to enormous amounts of individuals' personal information. Activity D -- NGOs and TNCs 1 What are the main characteristics of TNCs, and how do they operate across multiple states to maximise their profit? 2 Watch the video linked below and answer the questions that follow: 'Is Adani's Carmichael mine the political benchmark for fossil fuels in Australia?' ABC News/ The Drum, 2019 (6 min). youtu.be/j\_kTKVo7Q8Y Logos of the 'Big Five' tech giants, sometimes referred to as the 'MAMAA' group following recent rebrands. SAMPLE 23 1.1 \| Power and national political actors a What are the interests of TNC Adani regarding the Carmichael mine proposal? b Who opposes the proposal? c Outline some of the interests in the community that align with the proposal. 3 Describe the common characteristics of NGOs, including their funding sources and strategies for promoting their agendas. 4 Teachers should divide the class into small groups and assign each group one of the prominent international NGOs mentioned (e.g. Amnesty International, Greenpeace, Oxfam). In these groups, research the NGO's history, political perspectives and recent initiatives that align with their core goals. Students may summarise and present their findings to the rest of the group in the form of posters or short presentations. Social movements 1.1.2.8 As with NGOs, social movements advocate to advance a particular cause. These movements are social in the sense that they are made up of individuals and groups who form more loose and informal associations to promote or resist some form of change that may have social, political, economic or cultural dimensions. At their most successful, social movements can shift societal attitudes, influence lawmaking and change policies. Social movements tend to gain momentum when enough people are willing to speak out or act on a particular issue. Social movements can be understood by what strategies their supporters might choose to use: reformist movements focus on working within systems to change them or the outcomes they produce revolutionary tendencies usually focus their efforts on building power outside systems and using that power to dismantle and/or replace them reactionary movements tend to resist change and/or seek to revive past arrangements they see as superior to the status quo. Groups and individuals 1.1.2.9 Students will note that all of the actors discussed so far are, by definition, groups made up of individuals. For the purposes of our study, we consider 'groups and individuals' to refer to those who do not quite fit into one of our other categories of 'actor'. Never doubt that a small group of thoughtful, committed citizens can change the world; indeed, it's the only thing that ever has. Quotation attributed to cultural anthropologist Margaret Mead Black Lives Matter protest signs showing the number of known Aboriginal deaths in custody since the Royal Commission delivered its final report in 1991. Composite image credit: The Guardian/Getty/AAP/EPA. theguardian.com/australia-news/2020/jun/09/black-livesmatter-protesters-referred-to-our-count-of-432-aboriginaldeaths-in-custody-its-now-437 Social movements are groups of individuals who, through some organised effort, seek to achieve a certain social change or political goal. SAMPLE 24 The function that regular people may play as political actors can be understood in a few different ways. In a democratic society, the legitimacy of political elites is thought to derive from the assumed consent of the majority of the population. If only for pragmatic reasons, they have neither the time nor the inclination to be involved in every decision themselves and so delegate their authority to others -- their representatives. Individuals who oppose particular decisions or policies may form associations with others of similar perspectives. When these groups start 'doing something about it', that may become part of a broader social movement, an NGO or a political party. Individuals also form groups for reasons that may not appear specifically political in nature but may nonetheless serve political functions where circumstances align. For example: -- criminal gangs whose motivations are mostly economic may seek to pressure or bribe elected officials to protect their operations from scrutiny -- a book club organised as a social outlet may end up discussing and acting on shared political ideas -- a native plants group may oppose and try to resist council plans to allow development in a neighbouring national park. Changes in communications and other technologies have also significantly changed the potential for individuals and smaller groups to exert political influence, even if they lack the enormous personal wealth that such outsized influence would usually have required. (Consider how easy it is to pull up a recording of someone sharing their political opinions on any topic.) Mike Cannon-Brookes Mike Cannon-Brookes is co-founder and co-CEO of collaboration software firm Atlassian. Along with being a 'tech billionaire', he is part-owner of both the South Sydney Rabbitohs rugby league club and the Utah Jazz NBA basketball team. Cannon-Brookes is also an active philanthropist and climate activist, having pledged to spend \$1 billion on climate investments and \$500 million on climate philanthropy by 2030. In 2022, he was the third richest person overall in Australia, with a personal wealth of \$27.83 billion. This wealth and investing power combined with his environmental conscience have seen Cannon-Brookes initiate an effective board takeover of AGL -- Legitimacy is the perception that an act, actor, group or institution is justified in its exercise of power; legitimacy is thought to transform power into authority. Authority is the degree to which the use(s) of power by particular actors are considered rightful or legitimate. The sign outside Gosford Anglican Church following a 2018 incident in which one of its Saturday evening masses was interrupted by a group of far-right protesting the Church's vocal progressive stance on social justice matters, including welcoming refugees, action on climate change, and their support of Muslims and the LGBTQIA+ community. Credit: Rod Bower. Mike Cannon-Brookes, ranked ninth in the Australian Financial Review's list of Australia's 10 most powerful people in 2022. Credit: Atlassian. SAMPLE 25 1.1 \| Power and national political actors Australia's largest energy company and carbon emitter -- with the goal of transforming the company into a private business, while accelerating the schedule for retiring its fleet of fossil-fuel-consuming power plants. Through his investment company Grok Ventures, Cannon-Brookes has spent about \$650 million to acquire an 11.3 per cent stake in AGL, making him the company's single biggest shareholder. This has allowed him to coordinate sympathetic shareholders to support his proposed board directors. Cannon-Brookes's actions show how an individual (admittedly, one with considerable economic resources) can, through shareholder activism, pressure a major player in the energy industry to decarbonise. Rather than just divesting (shifting funds) out of fossil fuel energy, Cannon-Brookes shows how an individual can remain invested in a big polluter and leverage their influence effectively and strategically in a way that has made a material difference to environmental outcomes. Different ways of organising formal power within states 1.1.3 Democratic and aristocratic states are not in their own nature free. Political liberty is to be found only in moderate governments -- and even in these it is not always found. It is there only when there is no abuse of power. But constant experience shows us that any person invested with power is apt to abuse it and to carry their authority as far as it will go. To prevent this abuse, it is necessary from the very nature of things that power should be a check to power. A government may be so constituted, as no man shall be compelled to do things to which the law does not oblige him, nor forced to abstain from things which the law permits. Charles Montesquieu, 1748. The Spirit of Laws, Chez Barrillot and Fils, Geneva. As noted by Montesquieu, one of the key considerations when thinking about power is how we can best channel and shape it in ways that minimise the risks associated with it becoming overconcentrated, while also ensuring that it has sufficient force when its application is justified. The way in which states organise their formal power varies depending on political systems and historical and cultural factors. Our study design asks us to focus on three of the most important ways in which formal power is organised in many liberal democratic states such as Australia. These are (1) the principles of federalism, (2) responsible government and (3) the separation of powers. First, some foregrounding. Liberal democracies are political systems that combine two sets of ideas: liberalism (the idea that individuals should be protected from unreasonable exercises of power) and democracy (that rules governing a community should be decided by the people living in them). The graphic provided illustrates some of the key and shared features of both concepts, as well as some apparent contradictions. In this sense, we can see how the two ideas at the core of the theory of liberal democracy counterbalance one another. Liberalism is a political and moral philosophy based on the rights of the individual, liberty and political equality. Democracy is a system of government where power and the ability to make rules rests with, and is exercised by, the people to whom those rules apply. Liberal democracy refers to a form of democracy in which the power of government is limited and counterbalanced by the rights and freedoms of individuals, which are protected by constitutions, established norms and institutions. SAMPLE 26 Together, federalism, responsible government and the separation of powers, complemented with other democratic norms, processes and principles, are thought to act as safeguards against the unjustified accumulation and use of power by governments and the elites who operate them. Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely. English historian John Acton, 1887 Readers will note that the impact of these sources on how power is exercised (key knowledge point 1.1.4.5) is interwoven in discussions of each. Federalism 1.1.3.1 The Commonwealth of Australia is a federation made up of six states (New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria and Western Australia), each with their own constitution and institutions of government, as well as two self-governing territories (the Australian Capital Territory \[ACT\] and the Northern Territory \[NT\]). Prior to Federation in 1901, each state was separately administered as a British colony; in agreeing to federate, each allocated a certain set of responsibilities to the joint federal government, with the remainder staying with the states. Since Federation, the Australian Constitution has continued to enforce these divisions, although certain legal and political developments have seen the federal government adopt a growing share of responsibilities and powers -- not just at the expense of the states, but also from the United Kingdom, as it relinquished its political, diplomatic and military involvement in Australia. One key example of this dynamic is taxes on income, which make up around two-thirds of all governments' revenues. From 1900, income taxes went from being collected only by states, to being collected by both levels from 1915, to being collected only by the Commonwealth from 1942. Both developments were initially justified by the need to fund Australia's involvement in the world wars. This dynamic has given the federal government considerable economic power compared to the states. Approximately one-half of state governments' income is made up of federal government grants, many of which are 'tied' to particular conditions or programs being administered by the states. Other examples of federal systems include the 50 states that form the United States, as well as the 16 states that make up the Federal Republic of Germany. Federalism is a system of government where power is divided between a central national government and more geographically 'dispersed' subnational governments that administer smaller regional or local jurisdictions. liberalism classical, economic, political, social laws legitimate if reasonable individuals have rights and protections formal legal equality private property the rule of law private tyrannies courtrooms and cafes protection from violence personal privacy procedural fairness democracy illiberal, electoral, representative, direct laws legitimate if popular preference of the majority decides the rules votes have equal weight collective interests collective security tyranny of the majority assemblies and forums state or popular violence access to information democratic accountability institutions' legitimacy derives from consent of the governed freedom of thought and communication consideration, deliberation, discussion political pluralism and diversity elements in tension shared elements liberal democracy SAMPLE 27 1.1 \| Power and national political actors In all federal systems, state or 'provincial' governments retain significant responsibilities independent of the national government; in all three examples provided, these include partial or total control over health care, education, policing and planning. Federalism stands in contrast with the notion of a unitary state, where the national government retains ultimate authority over the majority of policy areas (although it may create or abolish administrative subdivisions). New Zealand, Indonesia and Philippines are examples of unitary states. In turn, Australian states are divided into around 500 local government areas, variously known as councils, shires, cities or municipalities. Arrangements vary from state to state, but councils generally collect some form of land-based taxes ('rates'). Federalism can be collaborative. The most recent significant expression of this was the creation of the intergovernmental forum known as National Cabinet, which replaced the former Council of Australian Governments (COAG) as the core piece of federal relations 'architecture'. Comprised of a prime minister, state premiers and territory chief ministers, the National Cabinet was initially established as an effective joint response to the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic. Federalism can be competitive in the sense that it occasionally sees competition between states that extend beyond football. However, it can also permit competition between states and the federal government. Most commonly, this occurs when different political parties are in control, or when state and federal leaders simply have differing perspectives and interests regarding issues of shared responsibility. Learn more about federalism in Australia using resources developed by the Parliamentary Education Office: 'Three levels of government'. peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/how-parliament-works/threelevels-of-government Unitary states are those in which most or all of state power resides in a centralised, 'national' government. 'Three levels of government in Australia'. Parliamentary Education Office, 2022. peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/how-parliament-works/three-levels-of-government SAMPLE 28 Activity E -- Federalism at work 1 Read the article linked below and complete the task that follows: Benita Kolovos, 2022. 'What to know about Anthony Albanese's \$2.2bn pledge for Victoria's Suburban Rail Loop'. The Guardian. theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/may/10/ what-to-know-about-anthony-albaneses-22bn-pledge-for-victorias-suburban-rail-loop Outline the political perspectives, interests and power of the following three actors in relation to the issues outlined in the article: -- Scott Morrison, then Australian prime minister and leader of the Liberal-National Coalition government -- Daniel Andrews, Victorian premier and leader of the state Labor government -- Anthony Albanese, then federal opposition leader of the Labor Party. 2 Using what you have learnt so far, make a 10-point list featuring what might be considered strengths and weaknesses of having a federal system of government. Responsible government 1.1.3.2 Responsible government is the expectation of accountability of executive governments to parliament and (by extension) the public. It includes a number of related conventions and assumptions that were developed from the Westminster system (the model of parliamentary government that emerged in England and has been adapted by Australia). In Australia, responsible government is based on two complementary forms of accountability: collective and individual. Collective accountability is associated with the idea that the government as a whole (generally derived from the party or parties receiving the majority of members elected to the House of Representatives; see more on this in the next section) must answer reasonable questions and allow itself to be scrutinised by the entire parliament, including members from other parties and the senate. This principle seeks to ensure that the executive's power to implement laws do not exceed proper limits. Individual accountability is associated with the expectation and requirement that ministers within the government must be held personally responsible for the activities and decisions taken by them, as well as the government departments they administer. 50 Non-government Minority 50% House the government is formed in the House of Representatives the government must maintain the support of the House of Representatives to stay in power the government is responsible to the Parliament the government is not formed in the Senate Responsible government refers to the expectation that executive governments must be answerable to parliaments, and that their decisions and actions must be exposed to public scrutiny. SAMPLE 29 1.1 \| Power and national political actors Question time In the Australian Parliament, there is a special period known as question time that is reserved for all members to ask questions of government ministers. This is one of the more visible expressions of the idea of responsible government, because it allows for nongovernment (opposition and independent) members to ask probing questions of ministers and hold them to public account. You can learn more about question time (and find out who Dorothy Dix is) here: Gregory Melleuish, 2021. 'Question time reforms are worthy but won't solve the problem of a broken political culture'. The Conversation. theconversation.com/question-time-reforms-are-worthy-butwont-solve-the-problem-of-a-broken-political-culture-160867 The separation of executive, legislative and judicial power 1.1.3.3 The separation of powers is a principle that stems from French political thinker Charles de Montesquieu in his book De l'esprit des lois (The Spirit of Laws, 1748). It is the fundamental concept at the heart of modern liberal democracy. Montesquieu proposed that the greatest threat to liberty was tyranny (oppressive government) and that to prevent the emergence of tyranny, the government itself must be divided into three 'branches': 1 The legislature (usually referred to as 'parliament') has the power to debate, create and amend laws. In Australia, this arm of government is comprised of the House of Representatives and the Senate. 2 The executive (usually referred to as 'the government') has the power to implement and enforce laws. In Australia, this arm of government is comprised of the Federal Cabinet, which includes all senior ministers and the prime minister. Ministers must also be members of Parliament and are typically drawn by the party or parties who hold the majority of seats in the House of Representatives. In a formal sense, executive power in Australia stems from the monarch through to their representative, the governorgeneral. Although, by convention, the latter always acts on the advice of the Cabinet. 3 The judiciary (sometimes referred to as 'the courts') have the power to interpret and make judgments regarding the application of laws. In Australia, this arm of government is comprised of the High Court and other federal courts. Portrait of French philosopher Charles Montesquieu, widely credited as the first to formalise the concept of the separation of powers. Separation of powers refers to the distribution of power to govern between three branches of government; each branch is independent of and has the ability to 'block' the other, which is thought to guard against any one branch (or member thereof) becoming too powerful. SAMPLE 30 Australia does not have a complete separation of powers because of some 'overlap' in the roles between the Parliament, the executive and the judiciary -- the most consequential being that those who lead the executive branch (cabinet ministers) are drawn from the Parliament. This contrasts with the United States, where the president (as 'chief' executive) is elected in a separate process to the Congress (as parliament) and, in turn, appoints their own cabinet (executive). This is also the case in France, which possesses a hybrid of both models -- having both a prime minister appointed by parliament, as well as a directly elected president. The sources of legitimacy of political actors 1.1.4 Kindly remember that he whom you call your slave sprang from the same stock, is smiled upon by the same skies, and on equal terms with yourself breathes, lives, and dies. It is just as possible for you to see in him a free-born man as for him to see in you a slave. Seneca, 65 CE. 'Letter XLVII. On Master and Slave' 10. Moral Letters to Lucilius. As a concept, legitimacy sits at the crossroads between authority, justice and mutual obligation. It signifies the extent to which the authority and uses of power by some political actors over others are considered appropriate and justified. In such cases, the authority may still be obeyed, even if it is loathed. This is usually because a source of power that can coerce people into acquiescence, obedience and compliance is underpinning the authority. 'Separation of powers: Parliament, executive and judiciary'. Parliamentary Education Office, 2023. peo.gov.au/understand-our-parliament/how-parliament-works/system-of-government/ separation-of-powers Separation of powers in Australia A demonstrator protesting outside the US Supreme Court. Credit: AP/Andrew Harnik. SAMPLE 31 1.1 \| Power and national political actors Unsurprisingly, the same act or actor can be considered more or less legitimate by others depending on what values and interests are put forward by each. It is a highly subjective concept. When exploring the concept of legitimacy, three fundamental questions arise: 1 Whom do political actors feel compelled to answer to and why? 2 Where does the authority of political actors stem from? 3 Why are political actors obeyed and by whom? While legitimacy has relevance to all political actors, it is most commonly applied to the state and institutions of government (whether local, regional, national or 'global'). Political actors tend to rely on multiple sources of legitimacy, four of which the study design asks us to focus on: democratic processes, ideology, coercion and economic performance. Democratic processes 1.1.4.1 In democratic systems, legitimacy is said to derive from the support and consent of a majority of the population (the 'consent of the governed'), generally expressed through elections. This means that those who occupy the offices of government (in the legislature and the executive), and use the powers associated with them, can justify doing so as an expression and representation of that popular will -- they have sought and been granted permission. The lower house and single-member electorates Parliaments in Australia tend to feature either one or two 'houses'. The lower house is known as the House of Representatives (or sometimes Legislative Assembly), and the upper is known as the Senate (or sometimes the Legislative Council). At a federal level and through most states and territories, the lower house is made up of single-member districts (sometimes called seats, electorates or divisions). During an election (where voting is compulsory for all adult citizens), voters rank their preferred candidates. The Electoral Commission then removes the candidates receiving the lowest number of first preference votes and reallocates them according to their next preference, repeating this process until only two candidates remain. Of these two candidates, the one with the highest number of votes is declared the winner and elected as the member for that seat. This system is commonly referred to as 'preferential voting' and contrasts with many other systems where votes for unsuccessful candidates are discarded, rather than reallocated. Consent of the governed refers to the idea that a government's legitimate use of state power is justified when the people over whom that power is exercised agree or consent to it. Elections are the formal process by which a population decides which individual(s) will hold particular positions of authority. Ingrid (CYA) 22k Joanne (ORA) 12k Ahmad (GOL) 30k Nicola (PUR) 36k 1st count Ingrid (CYA) ↑ 25k Joanne (ORA) Ahmad (GOL) ↑↑ 38k Nicola (PUR) 37k 2nd count Ingrid (PUR) Ahmad (GOL) ↑ 53k Nicola (PUR) ↑ 47k 3rd count Ahmad (GOL) 53k Nicola (PUR) 47k result The process is repeated until only two remain (revealing the 'two-candidate preferred' vote): Of the two remaining, the candidate with the highest number of votes is elected. The candidate with the fewest votes has theirs redistributed according to their voters' second: preferences: In a race with 100k voters and 4 candidates, the following primary votes are counted: Preferential voting in Australia SAMPLE