Political Science Notes PDF

Week 1- General Introduction dinsdag 17 december 2024 19:27 Defining politics; Defining politics is surprisingly hard; it is an essentially contested concept Two Broad Approaches: Politics as an arena: behavior becomes political because of where it takes place Politics as a proces...

Week 1- General Introduction dinsdag 17 december 2024 19:27 Defining politics; Defining politics is surprisingly hard; it is an essentially contested concept Two Broad Approaches: Politics as an arena: behavior becomes political because of where it takes place Politics as a process: behavior that exhibits distinctive characteristics or qualities; can take place in any social context 4 views on Politics: Politics as the art of government (arena) Politics = what concerns the state or government Restricted view: Ignores many actors, institutions, and processes outside politics Politics as public affairs (arena) Politics = what concerns the state + public life/public sphere Broader view of ‘the political’: includes government, NGOs, social movements, media, etc. Politics as compromise & consensus (process) Politics as a means of resolving conflict through compromise and consensus Critique: Restricted to Western pluralist democracies (*Mainly applies to Western democracies where different groups share power and negotiate) Politics as power (process) Politics as struggle over scarce resources; power as the means of struggle Power as decision-making, agenda-setting, thought control Studying Politics? Origins of Political Science: Old field of study, initially part of philosophy, history, or law → study of principles for society’s foundation Evolved into its own scientific discipline A scientific discipline: More than ‘talking about politics’ Based on: ○ Scientific objectivity, empirical tradition POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 1  ○ Scientific objectivity, empirical tradition ○ Intellectual distance: scientific objectivity and neutrality ○ Systematic inquiry and scientific ‘language’ Scientific ‘language’: Approaches: Philosophical, empirical, behavioralism, rational choice, new institutionalism, critical approaches Concepts: Tools like democracy, liberty, conservatism Models: Representations that link elements and simplify reality, e.g., David Easton’s model of the ‘Political System’ Theories: Systematic explanations of empirical data, e.g., Median Voter Theorem Key Points from Today’s Class (week 1- 23/09) Politics = (social) activity through which people make, preserve and amend the general rules under which they live Variety of views on ‘the political,’ ranging from narrow (art of government) to very broad views (power) Politics is an essentially contested concept/ People disagree on what 'politics' really means, and there's no final answer. Political science = scientific study of politics Political scientists use many different approaches in their studies of ‘the political’ A variety of devices exist to help political scientists make sense of the political world: concepts, models, theories POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 2  Week 2- Nation States dinsdag 17 december 2024 19:34 Central Questions What is a state? What are the key features of states? Why do we have states? Where do states originate, and how do they develop? Is it still relevant to talk about states in a globalized world? What is a State? Definition: States are a way of organizing government; they are one form among many, such as tribes or princedoms. Core Characteristics of States: ○ Form of social life and most important community. ○ Political by nature; power is essential. ○ They have symbols of statehood (flag, anthem, currency). ○ Varied Characteristics: ▪ Size (e.g., Canada vs. Estonia) ▪ Power (e.g., San Marino vs. US) ▪ Age (e.g., France vs. Montenegro) ▪ Recognition status (some states are partially or not at all recognized) Key Features of States Three Core Features: ○ Territory: Claims a specific geographic area and controls borders, airspace, and coastal waters. ○ Sovereignty: Holds highest authority within its territory; includes internal sovereignty (self-governing within borders) and external sovereignty (recognized by other states). ○ People: Includes a relatively permanent population (citizens) who form a nation-state. Two Additional Features: ○ Monopoly on Legitimate Use of Force: State has exclusive right to use force, accepted by the people (Weber’s concept). ○ Rule of Law: State is subject to law and must respect human rights. Why Do We Have States? Four Approaches: 1. Constitutional Approach: State arises from a social contract where citizens give up certain freedoms in exchange for protection (Hobbes, Rousseau). 2. Pluralist Approach: State regulates conflicts and reconciles differences to prevent violence. Conflict Approach: State may not be neutral; often biased toward privileged groups (e.g., POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 3 3. Conflict Approach: State may not be neutral; often biased toward privileged groups (e.g., Marxism, feminism). 4. Ethical and Moral Approach: State's role is to organize society for harmony and collective wellbeing; some views (anarchism) argue against the need for states. Origins and Development of States Three General Patterns: ○ Transformation: Gradual change from political units (e.g., medieval monarchies) to nation-states (e.g., Britain). ○ Unification: Previously separate entities combine (e.g., German unification in 1871). ○ Secession: Breakup of larger political units into smaller states (e.g., decolonization, recent secession movements). Four Stages of State Development (Rokkan’s Model): ○ State Formation: Consolidation of territory; establishment of institutions (police, army). ○ Nation Building: Creation of a common identity and sense of loyalty (e.g., language, symbols). ○ Mass Democracies: Citizens gain the right to participate; democratic institutions develop. ○ Welfare States: Extension of the state’s role to include social services and redistribution (e.g., social security). Is the State Still Relevant in a Globalized World? Challenges: ○ Globalization reduces state autonomy and power (influence of UN, EU, multinationals). ○ Sub-state identities (regional, cultural) can diminish state influence. Relevance: ○ Despite globalization, states remain important in world politics. ○ Return of strong states and renewed nationalism (e.g., Brexit). ○ In political science, the state remains a core level of analysis. Key Points of Today’s Class (Week 2- 30/09) The state, as a political concept and form of organization, has European roots. States are defined by territory, sovereignty, and people. States develop uniquely, but typically follow a four-stage model: state formation, nation- building, mass democracy, and welfare state. States face challenges from globalization but remain crucial political entities. POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 4  Week 3- Democracy dinsdag 17 december 2024 19:34 ♥Central Questions What makes a democracy? Democracy is a system of government where people have the power to make decisions about how they are ruled, usually by voting. It’s based on the idea that everyone should have a say in how their country is run What forms does democracy take? What are the requisites of sustainable democracy? Is there a global spread of democracy? What are contemporary challenges to democracy? ♥What Makes a Democracy? Definition: Democracy is a political system where government is based on a fair and open mandate from all qualified citizens. Key elements include/ what makes a democracy?: ○ Form of self-government: Power by the people (demos + kratos). ○ Free and fair mandate to govern. ○ Open procedures. ○ Qualified citizens: Who is eligible to vote? Definitions Vary: ○ Procedural Definitions: Focus on how democracy functions, with emphasis on structures and processes like elections and rule of law. ○ Substantive Definitions: Focus on what democracy delivers, such as achieving equality or the common good. Thin vs. Thick Procedural Definitions: ○ Thin: Democracy requires citizens to participate in political life and exercise political rights. ○ Thick: Includes constitutional protections like civil liberties and human rights (Polyarchy, Robert Dahl). ♥Forms of Democracy 1. Direct Democracy: Citizens make political decisions directly (e.g., Athenian democracy). 2. Representative Democracy: Citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf; suitable for larger populations. 3. Liberal vs. Illiberal Democracy: a. Liberal: Combines participation with constitutional protections for civil rights and liberties. *(where people have the power to participate in decisions (like voting), but there are also rules in place to protect everyone's rights and freedoms) POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 5  b. Illiberal: Lacks protection for civil rights, often includes restrictions on freedoms despite elections. * (a system where people can vote and have elections, but the government doesn’t protect basic freedoms like free speech or fair treatment.) 4. Non-Democracies: Systems that claim democratic elements (like elections) but lack fair, competitive elections, often due to manipulation or fraud. ♥Requisites/ essential requirements for Sustainable Democracy 1. Modernization: Socioeconomic development often supports democracy by increasing education, creating a middle class, and fostering democratic values (Lipset, Inglehart). 2. Political Institutions: Strong democratic institutions (e.g., constitutions) help sustain stability. 3. Political Culture: A supportive political culture is essential for democratic stability. ♥Global Spread of Democracy Three Waves of Democratization (Samuel Huntington): ○ First Wave: 1826-1930, mainly in Western Europe and North America. ○ Second Wave: WWII-1960s, including Germany and decolonized nations. ○ Third Wave: 1974-present, with democratization in Southern Europe, Latin America, and post-Soviet states. Contemporary Spread: While the number of democracies increased post-1950s, recent trends show stagnation and challenges to democracy’s global spread. ♥Challenges to Democracy Crisis of Democracy: Since the 1990s, democracy faces issues such as: ○ Decreasing trust in politics. ○ Declining political participation. ○ Rise of radical parties. ○ Young people turning away from democratic values. Resilience and Innovation: ○ Representative democracy is reinventing itself: Increased transparency and citizen engagement (e.g., referendums, citizens' assemblies). ○ Non-political experts (technocrats) increasingly influence democratic processes. ♥Key Points from Today’s Class (week 3- 07/10) Democracy as an Essentially Contested Concept: Differing views (thin vs. thick) on what democracy is or should be. Polyarchy: Essential to understanding modern democracy, involving democratic characteristics like fair elections and rule of law. POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 6  characteristics like fair elections and rule of law. Diverse Forms: Democracy can be direct, representative, liberal, or illiberal. Modernization Supports Democracy: But it’s not a guarantee; institutions and political culture are also crucial. Global Spread and Crisis: Democracies have expanded but now face a crisis of trust and participation, even as they innovate to adapt. POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 7  Week 4- Political Ideologies dinsdag 17 december 2024 19:34 ♥Central Topics What is the nature of ideology? Major ideologies: Liberalism, Conservatism, Christian Democracy, Socialism Minor ideologies: Nationalism, Green Political Thought, Populism Are we witnessing the “end of ideology”? ♥What is the Nature of Ideology? Definition: Ideology is a comprehensive set of ideas and beliefs about politics that combines empirical statements (about what is) and normative statements (about what ought to be). Core Components: ○ Sets of ideas, beliefs, and values that are systematic and abstract. ○ Contains both empirical (descriptive) and normative (prescriptive) elements. ○ Functions as a plan for action. Debates and Variation: ○ Major ideologies have various interpretations. ○ Ideologies often have similarities, especially in views on human nature. ○ Ideology is an essentially contested concept. ♥Major Ideologies; 1. Liberalism Origins: Emerged in the 18th century, challenging feudal and aristocratic systems, advocating individual liberty. Core Beliefs: ○ Individual Liberty: Highest value; limited state power preserves liberty (rule of law). ○ Two Types of Liberty (Berlin): Negative liberty (freedom from restraint) vs. Positive liberty (capacity to act). Views on State Power: ○ Classical Liberalism/Neoliberalism: Minimal state as a "necessary evil." ○ Modern/Social Liberalism: Limited government that ensures citizens' ability to exercise rights. Economic Views: Supports free markets and limited state intervention (invisible hand of the market). 2. Conservatism Origins: Reaction to the political and economic upheaval of the late 18th century, valuing tradition and slow reform. Core Beliefs: ○ Organic Society: Society is an interconnected organism, developing slowly over time. ○ Pessimistic View of Human Nature: Belief in inherent human imperfections; need for strong leadership and social hierarchy. ○ Inequality is Natural: Differences in ability justify some levels of social and economic inequality. POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 8  inequality. 3. Christian Democracy Origins: Influenced by Catholic thought, particularly the Rerum Novarum encyclical (1891). Core Beliefs: ○ Emphasizes natural law, family, church, and community. ○ Supports subsidiarity: Local communities should manage their own affairs with minimal state interference. ○ Focuses on moderate welfare and state intervention to protect the weak and poor. 4. Socialism Origins: 19th-century response to industrial capitalism and class struggles. Core Beliefs: ○ Optimistic View of Human Nature: People are rational, reasonable, and cooperative. ○ Equality of Opportunity: Belief that social environments create inequality, which should be addressed by the state. ○ State Intervention: ▪ Social Democracy: Supports gradual reform within a mixed economy. ▪ Communism: Advocates for a classless, collectively owned society. ♥Minor Ideologies; 1. Nationalism Core Beliefs: Advocates for national self-determination and prioritizes a shared national identity over other divisions. Forms: ○ Political Nationalism: Seeks autonomous self-governance. ○ Cultural Nationalism: Emphasizes cultural preservation within a state. Debates/ Critiques: Globalization challenges the relevance of nationalism but also prompts renewed interest in national identity. 2. Green Political Thought Origins: Emerged in the 1960s, linked to environmental movements. Core Beliefs: ○ Advocates post-materialist values, focusing on quality of life and environmental sustainability. ○ Supports decentralization and localism, encouraging sustainable development and direct democracy. 3. Populism Core Beliefs: ○ A "thin" ideology that defines society as divided between "pure people" and a "corrupt elite." ○ Populists claim to represent the general will and aim to give power back to "the people." Characteristics: Often normatively charged, viewing elites as corrupt. POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 9  ♥The End of Ideology? Concept: 1960s theory suggesting that ideological conflicts were fading, with convergence towards liberal democracy (Daniel Bell’s End of Ideology). Critiques: The idea was challenged by the resurgence of ideological polarization and the rise of Green political thought and neoliberalism. ♥Key Points from Today’s Class (week 4- 14/10) Ideologies: Systematic sets of ideas about politics and society. Democratic Ideologies: Major ideologies include liberalism, conservatism, Christian democracy, and socialism; minor ideologies include nationalism, green thought, and populism. Views on Human Nature: ○ Optimistic: Liberalism, socialism. ○ Pessimistic: Conservatism. State Intervention: Ideologies vary from advocating extensive (socialism, green) to minimal (conservatism, liberalism) state roles. POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 10  Week 5- Public policy & Bureaucracies dinsdag 17 december 2024 19:35 ♥Guiding Questions What is (public) policy? How are policies made? What is the function of bureaucracies, and how are they organized? What is the difference between politicians and bureaucrats? What is the power of bureaucrats, and how can they be controlled? ♥What is Public Policy? Definition: Policies are outcomes of political decision-making, or interrelated government decisions intended to guide public, social, and economic life. Types of Policies: ○ Regulative: Rules to control behavior (e.g., maternity leave). ○ Distributive: Provision of goods/services to citizens (e.g., infrastructure). ○ Redistributive: Redistribution of resources (e.g., progressive taxes). ○ Constitutive: Ensure fundamental rights or define government structure (e.g., constitutional reforms). ♥The Policy Cycle 1. Policy Initiation (Agenda Setting): a. The process of determining which issues need political attention. b. Influenced by public agenda (citizens/media) vs. political agenda (politicians). 2. Policy Formulation: a. Developing potential solutions and policy options involves both technical-rational (objective problem-solving) and competitive (framing and persuasion) stages. b. Example: Smoking policies (warnings, taxes, ID checks). 3. Policy Adoption (Decision Making): a. Process where officials choose a policy option; can follow: i. Rational model: Clear goals and utility maximization (assumes access to all information). ii. Incremental model: Trial-and-error; assumes limited info, negotiation, and gradual changes. 4. Policy Implementation: Putting policies into practice, usually handled by bureaucracies. a. Top-down: Government directives. Bottom-up: Ground-level implementation adjusted by local actors. POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 11  b. Bottom-up: Ground-level implementation adjusted by local actors. 5. Policy Evaluation: a. Assessing policy impact (output vs. outcome). b. May lead to continuation, termination, or alteration of policies; includes criteria like economy, efficiency, and effectiveness. ♥Bureaucracies and Their Organization Functions: ○ Implementation: Bureaucracies carry out policies. ○ Advisory Role: Provide guidance to decision-makers, maintain stability, and continuity. Organizational Models: ○ Weber’s Ideal-Type Bureaucracy: Centralized hierarchy, functional roles, legalism, neutrality, and permanence. Weber’s Ideal-Type Bureaucracy: 1. Centralized Hierarchy: Clear chain of command; everyone knows who reports to whom. 2. Functional Roles: Each person has a specific, defined role. 3. Legalism: Decisions based on laws and rules, not personal preferences. 4. Neutrality: Decisions are made objectively, without bias. 5. Permanence: Stable and long-lasting structure, with little turnover. ○ New Public Management: Adopts market principles, focusing on efficiency, privatization, and customer service; emphasizes minimal state involvement. ♥Politicians vs. Bureaucrats Differences: ○ Politicians: Elected officials with strategic influence, often temporary. vs ○ Bureaucrats: Typically permanent, large in number, providing logistical support and full-time policy advice. Power Dynamics: ○ Bureaucrats may have significant logistical power and continuity, making their influence lasting. ○ Status and connections impact bureaucratic power, often requiring control mechanisms. ♥Power and Control of Bureaucrats Challenges: Lack of accountability, potential corruption, and power imbalance. Control Mechanisms: ○ Accountability: Holding bureaucrats accountable to government or the judiciary. ○ Politicization: Allowing periodic leadership changes to balance power (e.g., spoils system). /changing leadership and roles based on political loyalty, rather than keeping things stable or neutral. POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 12  neutral. ○ Counter-Bureaucracies: Appointing advisory staff directly to politicians (e.g., personal cabinets). ○ Ombudsmen: Allow citizens to raise complaints against the bureaucracy. ♥Key Points from Today’s Class (week 5- 21/20) Public Policy: A structured process involving agenda-setting, formulation, adoption, implementation, and evaluation. Bureaucracies: Vital for policy implementation, providing stability and expert advice but require control mechanisms. Politicians vs. Bureaucrats: Politicians make decisions; bureaucrats ensure continuity, with differing power based on position, permanence, and connections. POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 13  Week 6- Political behavior, pressure groups and social movements dinsdag 17 december 2024 19:36 ♥Overview of Key Questions What is political behavior, and what forms does it take? What are pressure groups (PG) and social movements (SM)? How do PG and SM operate, and what factors determine their power? How do PG and SM impact democracy? What role does political culture play in society? ♥Political Behavior Definition: All political activities that citizens engage in to: ○ Signal preferences and Making demands to decision-makers. ○ Exert pressure to fulfill these preferences and demands. Forms of Political Behavior: ○ Conventional: Government-connected actions like voting, political campaigns, contacting officials, and political discussions. ○ Unconventional: Includes protests, strikes, petitions, boycotts, and civil disobedience. ○ Internet Participation: Digital avenues like online petitions, political discussions, and social media. ♥Patterns of Political Behavior 1. Low Political Engagement: Most people participate only occasionally, such as during elections or crises. 2. Rising Participation Rates: General engagement is increasing, especially in unconventional forms. 3. Decline in Conventional Participation: Voter turnout and party membership are decreasing. 4. Expansion of Participation Forms: Internet and social media have diversified ways people engage politically. 5. Participation Inequality: Socioeconomic status(SES) affects political involvement; people with higher SES have more resources and opportunities to participate. ♥Pressure Groups (PG) and Social Movements (SM) Civil Society: Includes voluntary organizations bridging citizens and the democratic state to influence government actions. ○ Pressure Groups(PG): Organized to influence policy without aiming to govern, divided into: POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 14  ▪ Interest Groups: Represent occupational interests (e.g., unions). ▪ Cause Groups: Advocate for specific issues (e.g., environmental causes). ○ Social Movements(SM): Loosely structured networks with broader, often reformative goals (e.g., climate change, equality). Key Differences Between PG, SM, and Political Parties: ○ Organization: PGs are more formal; SMs are loosely organized. ○ Methods: PGs use lobbying, while SMs often engage in protests. ○ Goals: PGs and SMs influence policy; political parties aim to become part of the government. ♥Operations and Influence of PG and SM Functions: ○ Interest Aggregation: Unify diverse views into a single policy platform. ○ Interest Articulation: Express views and demands to influence policymakers. Strategies: ○ Direct: Lobbying through personal contact with policymakers. ○ Indirect: Public campaigns, media, and court contests. Factors Determining Power: ○ Group characteristics: Income, size, density, and potential for disruption (e.g., strikes). ○ Political Environment: Insider vs. outsider status and media support influence impact. ♥Systems of Pressure Groups 1. Pluralism: Policies result from competition among many groups. 2. Corporatism: Major economic groups closely cooperate in policy-making, often forming binding agreements. ♥Social Capital and Political Culture Social Capital (Putnam): Networks and social trust that foster cooperation and effective governance. Higher social capital correlates with stronger democracies. Political Culture: Shared values, beliefs, and attitudes about government and politics, which influence how citizens view authority and participate in politics. ≥Civic Culture (Almond & Verba): Ideal for democracy, combining respect for authority with active participation. Materialism vs. Post materialism (Inglehart): Economic stability has led to a shift from survival-focused values (materialism) to values emphasizing personal freedom and quality of life (post materialism), spurring new forms of political participation. POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 15  Word Glossary; Lobbying means trying to influence or persuade politicians, lawmakers, or government officials to make decisions or pass laws that benefit a specific group or cause. For example, a Pressure Group (PG) might hire lobbyists to meet with government officials to advocate for policies that support their interests, like making certain laws more favorable for businesses or environmental protection. Lobbying often involves providing information, making arguments, or offering incentives to influence decision-makers. ♥Key Points from Today’s Class (week 6- 28/10) Political participation allows citizens to influence government actions and policies. Recent Trends: Decline in conventional participation but rise in alternative forms, especially online. Power of PG and SM: Their effectiveness relies on strategy, organizational structure, and political environment. Impact on Democracy: PG and SM can support or challenge democratic stability, depending on how they influence political participation and culture. POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 16  Week 7- Political parties & party government dinsdag 17 december 2024 19:36 Overview of Key Questions What is a political party? How do parties organize, and how has this changed over time? What are the main party families? What are party systems, and which different systems exist? What are coalition governments, and how are they formed? Are parties good or bad for democracy? ♥What is a Political Party? Definition: Organization of politically like-minded people seeking political power and public office to implement policies. Common Core Elements (of a political party): ○ Formal organization: (e.g., president, membership, statutes). ○ Like-minded people: Share an ideological program. ○ Seeking power by winning elections: Unlike pressure groups, which aim to influence government. ○ Implementing policies: Parties exist in both democratic and non-democratic regimes. ♥How Do Parties Organize? Main Stages of Development in Europe: ○ Caucus Parties: 19th-century elite parties, loose alliances with no formal organization outside parliament. ○ Mass Parties: Early 20th-century, emerged from labor movements, large memberships, centralized organization. ○ Catch-All Parties: 1970s, broader voter appeal, weaker ideological ties, general policies. ○ Cartel Parties/Electoral-Professional Parties: Late 20th-century, reliance on state funding, professional campaign management, fewer active members. ♥What are Party Families? Definition: Groups of parties in different countries with similar ideologies and programs. Examples: ○ Socialist/Social Democratic ○ Christian Democratic ○ Liberal ○ Conservative POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 17  ○ Conservative ○ Green/Ecologist ○ Nationalist, Populist, Regionalist ○ Agrarian (e.g., Latvian Farmers Party) ○ Communist (e.g., Parti Communiste Français) ○ Single Issue Parties (e.g., Dutch Party for the Animals) Left-Right Spectrum: ○ Often too simplistic; parties may have both left and right factions. Two-Dimensional Spectrum: Includes economic (left/right) and postmaterialist (progressive/conservative) issues. ♥What are Party Systems? Definition: The pattern of significant parties in a political system. How to Identify Significant Parties: Based on the number and strength of parties. Types of Party Systems: ○ One-Party System: Single ruling party, no real opposition (e.g., China, North Korea). ○ Dominant-Party System: One dominant party, limited power alternation (e.g., India, Sweden). ○ Two-Party System: Two significant parties dominate (e.g., USA, UK). ○ Multi-Party System: Several significant parties, often requiring coalition governments (e.g., Belgium, Italy). Impact of Party Systems: ○ Two-Party System: Often leads to one-party government. ○ Multi-Party System: Usually results in coalition governments. ○ Moderate vs. Polarized Pluralism: Differences in the ideological spread and competition. ♥Coalition Governments Definition: Governments consisting of two or more parties. Types: 1. Majority Government: Has at least 50% + 1 of the seats. (A majority government means a political party has more than half of the seats in a government (just over 50%). For example, if there are 100 seats, the party needs at least 51 seats to form a majority government. This gives them enough power to make decisions without needing help from other parties.) 2. Minimum Winning Coalition (MWC): Includes only parties necessary for a majority. 3. Minority Government: Smaller than MWC, lacks majority but not necessarily unstable. POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 18  4. Oversized Coalition: Includes surplus parties. 5. Grand Coalition: Often formed in crisis, includes all or most major parties. (A majority government means a political party has more than half of the seats in a government (just over 50%). For example, if there are 100 seats, the party needs at least 51 seats to form a majority government. This gives them enough power to make decisions without needing help from other parties.) ♥Are Parties Good or Bad for Democracy? Arguments Against: ○ Cause conflict and serve sectional interests. ○ Focus on self-preservation rather than the public good. Arguments In Favor: ○ Facilitate peaceful conflict resolution. ○ Foster competition and better arguments. Vital Functions: Interest articulation and aggregation, mobilization of voters, recruitment, organizing government. Iron Law of Oligarchy (Michels, 1911): Intra-party(within a party) democracy is limited; leaders often dominate decision-making. (The Iron Law of Oligarchy says that even in democratic organizations, like political parties, a small group of leaders tends to take control and make most of the decisions. Over time, these leaders gain power and dominate, leaving less room for regular members to have a say. It shows how true democracy within groups can be hard to maintain.) Recent Efforts for Intra-Party Democracy: 1. Member involvement, 2. term limits, 3. team leadership structures. Key Points from Today’s Class (Week 7- 04/11) Political Parties: Have four key features: formal organization, ideological unity, electoral ambitions, and policy implementation. Stages of Party Development: Reflect societal and political changes. Party Families: Ideological commonalities but complex left-right dynamics. Party Systems: Four main types, each affecting governance differently. Coalition Governments: Strategies vary from MWCs to grand coalitions. Impact on Democracy: Debate continues, but parties perform essential functions for democratic governance. POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 19 democratic governance. POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 20 Week 8- Exam training session dinsdag 17 december 2024 19:37 Exam Information Date: Tuesday, January 14, 13:00-16:00. Format: Written, closed-book (no notes, textbooks, or devices allowed). Focus: Class slides and notes. Covered chapters of Newton & Van Deth. Apply course concepts in open-ended responses. Etiquette: Follow exam rules to avoid penalties. Arrive early and bring essential materials only. Mock_Exa m_2024 IntroPS_Cla ss8_Exam... POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 21 Week 9- Voters & elections dinsdag 17 december 2024 19:38 Today's Class Topics 1. Democratic Elections: Definitions, significance, and threats. 2. Who Votes and Why?: Factors affecting voter turnout. 3. Voting Systems: Types and their implications. 4. Voting Systems and Party Government: Duverger's Law and its impact. 5. Explaining Vote Choice: Theories and determinants. 1. Democratic Elections Elections are a necessary but not sufficient component of democracy. Quote: "The electorate becomes part of the legitimating structure" (Lipset, 1994, p. 492). Preconditions for democratic elections: Free and fair elections. Universal adult suffrage. ( refers to the right of all adult citizens to vote in elections, regardless of their gender, race, ethnicity, wealth, education, or social status) Secret ballot. (Confidential voting) Impartial administration of voting and counting. Free and equal access to the polls. Threats to democracy: Gerrymandering: Manipulating district boundaries to favor a party Example: Packing opposing voters into one district or splitting them across many to weaken their influence. Access to polls: Barriers that prevent voting. Example: Few polling stations in rural areas or strict voter ID laws affecting minorities. Disinformation: Spreading false info to mislead voters. Example: Fake news about a candidate or incorrect voting dates shared online. 2. Who Votes and Why? Voter Turnout: Measured as % of eligible or registered voters who cast a valid vote. Varies significantly across democratic nations. Factors Influencing Voter Turnout: Systemic factors: Importance of the election (e.g., first-order vs. second-order elections like EU elections). Electoral systems. Competitiveness and frequency of elections. Compulsory voting (legal obligation to vote). Food for thought: Should voting be compulsory? Why or why not? Individual factors: Socio-economic status (SES). Demographics (age, ethnicity, residence). Party identification. Values, culture, and habits (e.g., protest voting). 3. Voting Systems POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 22 3. Voting Systems Voting systems convert votes into seats in representative bodies. Major Categories: Plurality/Majority: Simplicity and stability. Larger parties over-represented; smaller ones under-represented. Systems: 1. Simple plurality (FPTP): Clear winner but wastes votes for losing candidates. 2. Second ballot: Majority required; may lead to voter fatigue. 3. Alternative vote. Proportional Representation (PR): Focus on diversity and proportionality. Features multi-member districts; larger constituencies. Common systems: 1. List PR: Voters choose parties/candidates from a list How it works: Parties present a list of candidates, and voters choose either a party or specific candidates from the list. 2. Single Transferable Vote (STV): How it works: -Voters rank candidates in order of preference. -Candidates must meet a quota of votes to win. Surplus votes are transferred to other candidates based on voters' rankings. 3. Mixed-member proportional: How it works: MMP combines direct elections (one candidate per district) with proportional representation (party vote to ensure overall fairness). Voters cast two votes: one for a local candidate and one for a party, with extra seats given to balance the proportional outcome. For example, in Rwanda, voters can cast one vote for a candidate (e.g., Paul Kagame) and a separate vote for a party (e.g., FPR). The candidate and the party do not need to be linked or aligned, allowing voters to choose them independently. Key Notes: Electoral thresholds (e.g., Belgium 5%, Turkey 10%) prevent excessive fragmentation. (The sentence "Electoral thresholds (e.g., Belgium 5%, Turkey 10%) prevent excessive fragmentation" means that these thresholds set a minimum percentage of votes a party must achieve to gain representation. By requiring a higher share of the vote, smaller, less popular parties are excluded, reducing the number of parties in the system. This prevents the fragmentation of the political landscape, ensuring more stable governance by limiting the number of parties.) No "perfect" system exists; design impacts party systems and government composition. 4. Linking Voting Systems to Party Government Duverger's Law: Non-proportional systems (e.g., FPTP) favor two-party systems. Proportional systems favor multi-party systems. Effects: Mechanical: How votes translate into seats. Psychological: Voters avoid "wasting" votes on minor parties. Government Composition: Plurality/Majority: One-party governments. POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 23  Plurality/Majority: One-party governments. Proportional Representation (PR): Coalition governments. ->(A coalition government is formed when multiple political parties join forces to rule since no single party has a majority.) 5. Explaining Vote Choice Theoretical Approaches: 1. Sociological (Columbia): Group membership and societal cleavages (class, religion, etc.). Decline in class voting due to socio-economic changes. For example, In a country like India, people often vote based on their caste or religious group due to strong societal cleavages. For instance, lower-class voters may predominantly support a party that represents their interests or religious identity. 2. Psychological (Michigan): Party Identification (PID): Psychological attachment to a party. Criticism: Decreasing partisan loyalties; voter volatility. For example, In the U.S., many voters tend to stick with the same political party throughout their lives due to strong party identification. A person whose family has historically supported the Democratic Party may continue to vote Democrat, even if they disagree with some policies. 3. Rational Choice: Voting based on calculated personal benefit. Limits due to bounded rationality; reliance on heuristics/ Limits due to limited information and reliance on simple rules or shortcuts (heuristics) to make decisions. For example, A voter in the U.S. might choose a candidate based on economic policies. For instance, if the economy is struggling, they might vote for a party promising economic reforms that could benefit their personal situation. Other Determinants: Economic voting (reward or punish based on economic performance). For example, In Argentina, voters may choose a party based on the country’s economic performance. If the economy is doing poorly, they may vote against the current ruling party, viewing their policies as ineffective. Religion, gender, and race influence preferences. Key Takeaways Preconditions for democratic elections are vital for legitimacy. Voting systems directly influence voter behavior, party systems, and government types. Multiple factors (systemic, individual, and theoretical) explain electoral behavior. Reading Reminder: Newton & Van Deth, Chapter 12. POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 24 Week 10- Legislatures & Executives dinsdag 17 december 2024 19:38 Today's Class Topics 1. Separation of Powers: Concept and critiques. 2. Legislatures: Organization and key functions. 3. Executives: Roles and rising power. 4. Relationship Between Legislatures and Executives: Comparison of systems. 1. Separation of Powers Originated from Montesquieu’s De l’esprit des lois (1748). Division among three branches: Legislative: Law-making body. Executive: Implements laws. Judiciary: Interprets laws. Goal: System of checks and balances to prevent power concentration /prevent any one branch of government from becoming too powerful. Of course! Here's a simpler explanation: Criticisms of the Separation of Powers: 1. Inefficiency in governance: Sometimes, the system slows down decision-making because the branches have to work together and check each other, which can cause delays. 2. Branches aren't always independent: In practice, the branches sometimes overlap. For example: The Executive (President or Prime Minister) can help make laws, like needing approval for laws to pass. The Executive can also appoint judges, which can influence the independence of the Judiciary. 3. Fusion of power: In some systems (like in parliaments), the lines between branches aren't as clear. For instance, a parliament might have the power to dismiss the government (the Cabinet), blending the Legislative and Executive branches more than intended. 2. Legislatures Definition: Branch responsible for legislation (making laws) and overseeing the executive. Parliament: legislature in parliamentary systems. Congress: legislature in presidential systems. A. Organization (2 types) 1. Unicameral: One chamber/house (e.g., Denmark, Iceland). 2. Bicameral: Two chambers (e.g., USA, Belgium, India). Lower House: Represents population; members are elected. Upper House: Represents social or territorial groups; members may be elected or appointed. Types of Bicameralism: Strong: Both chambers share power (e.g., USA, Brazil). Weak: Upper house is subordinate/ less powerful (e.g., UK, India). Arguments in Favor of Bicameralism Arguments Against Bicameralism Stronger checks and balances: Two Institutional conflict between 2 chambers can check each other's chambers: Conflicts between chambers POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 25  chambers can check each other's chambers: Conflicts between chambers power, preventing concentration of can delay or block the passage of laws. authority. Wider representation: More diverse Slower procedures: The lawmaking groups and interests are represented in process is longer because a bill must the lawmaking process. pass through both chambers. Better legislation: Laws are more Reduced accountability: It can be thoroughly reviewed, leading to better- unclear who is responsible for quality, well-vetted legislation. decisions, reducing transparency and accountability Food for Thought?: Should your country have a bicameral or unicameral system? Why? B. key functions of legislatures: 1. Representation: What it means: Legislatures represent the interests of the public by reflecting people's opinions and needs in government decisions. Criticism: Sometimes, the legislature doesn’t fully represent everyone. For example, middle- aged, middle-class men from the majority groups may be over-represented, leaving other voices and groups underrepresented. 2. Legitimation: What it means: The legislature helps make the government look legitimate and trustworthy in the eyes of the public, showing that laws and decisions have been approved by elected representatives, not just imposed by one person or group. 3. Law-making: What it means: Legislatures are responsible for creating laws. This includes proposing, debating, and passing laws. Shared power with executives: In many countries, the executive branch (like the president or prime minister) plays a big role in proposing laws. For example, in some European democracies, most laws are actually proposed by the executive, but the legislature still debates and approves them. 4. Scrutiny: What it means: Legislatures also check or oversee the work of the executive branch to make sure they are doing their job properly and within the law. Mechanisms: Question time: Legislators ask government officials questions about their actions. Veto powers: The legislature may have the power to block laws or decisions made by the executive. Votes of no confidence: If the legislature loses trust in the executive, it can vote to remove them from power. Impeachment: A legal process that removes officials from office if they have done something wrong. Committees: Special groups within the legislature that prepare new laws, supervise government actions, and investigate issues of public concern. In summary: Representation: The legislature reflects public views. Legitimation: It makes the government seem legitimate. Law-making: It creates and passes laws. Scrutiny: It checks that the executive is doing its job properly. 3. Executives Definition: Decision-making and policy-implementing body. Roles: 1. Formulating public policy. POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 26  1. Formulating public policy. 2. Executing policies (e.g., managing bureaucracy). 3. Coordinating state activities. Types of Executives(2) Head of State: Ceremonial authority (e.g., monarchs in Belgium). Head of Government: Real executive power (e.g., prime ministers, presidents). Presidential systems: Head of state and head of government are the same. Parliamentary systems: Roles are separate. 3 functions of executives 1. Initiating government action and formulating public policy (Decision making): What it means: The executive (like the president or prime minister) makes important decisions about what the government will do. They set the direction for public policies (plans or rules to solve issues in society). 2. Executing and implementing public policy (Running the bureaucracy): What it means: Once decisions are made, the executive puts them into action. This involves managing government departments (like education, healthcare, etc.) and ensuring that policies are carried out properly by the bureaucracy (the workers and systems in government). 3. Coordinating the activities of the state: What it means: The executive helps coordinate and make sure that all parts of the government are working together. This means organizing and leading various government agencies to act in unison. Rising Power of the Executive?: The executive branch has become more powerful over time, due to several reasons: 1. Rising complexity & delegated legislation: As societies grow and issues become more complex, the executive may need more power to quickly make decisions or create new rules (called delegated legislation) without waiting for the legislature. 2. Organizational/media advantages: The executive has better access to media and communication networks, which allows it to influence public opinion and act quickly in the public eye. 3. Emergency powers: In times of crisis (like war or natural disasters), the executive may have special powers to act without the usual checks and balances in place. In summary: The executive makes key decisions, runs government departments, and ensures coordination across the state. Its power has grown due to the complexity of modern issues, the need for quick action, and the use of media and emergency powers. 4. Relationship Between Legislatures and Executives A. Presidential Systems Clear separation of powers. Both president and legislature are directly elected. Fixed tenure: Legislature cannot remove the president (except via impeachment). President appoints the cabinet, not accountable to the legislature. Conflict between branches can lead to deadlock. (Deadlock refers to a situation where there is a standstill , and no progress can be made. In POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 27  (Deadlock refers to a situation where there is a standstill , and no progress can be made. In the context of government branches, it happens when two or more branches (like the legislature and executive) cannot agree on a decision, law, or action, and they prevent each other from moving forward.) B. Parliamentary Systems Fusion of power: Executive drawn from and accountable to the legislature. Vote of no confidence can remove the executive. Executive can dissolve legislature and call elections. Power tends to concentrate in the prime minister over time. C. Semi-Presidential Systems Hybrid of presidential and parliamentary systems. Power shared between president (e.g., foreign policy) and prime minister (e.g., domestic affairs). President appoints the Prime Minister (PM), who is accountable to the legislature. Cohabitation: President and PM may belong to different parties. Key Takeaways Separation of Powers: Ideal vs. practical blending of power between branches of government. Legislatures: Can be unicameral or bicameral, each with pros and cons. Core functions: Represent people, make laws, legitimize government, and check executive power. Executives: Increasingly powerful in democracies. Key roles: Policy-making, implementing policies, and coordinating government actions. Legislature-Executive Relationship: Three systems: Presidential, parliamentary, and semi-presidential. No “best” system; each has advantages and disadvantages Reading: Newton & Van Deth, Chapter 6 (pp. 110-127). POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 28 Week 11- Multi-level government & Recap session dinsdag 17 december 2024 19:38 Today's Class Topics 1. What is Multi-Level Government?: Concept and challenges. 2. Forms of Territorial Organization: Unitary, federal, and confederal systems. 3. Comparing Systems: Advantages and drawbacks. 4. Role of Local Governments: Functions, supervision, and democracy vs. efficiency. 1. What is Multi-Level Government? Definition: Organization of governance across multiple levels to address varying public policy needs. State Characteristics: 1. Territory: Defined geographic area where the state has control. Example: France’s borders define its territory. 2. Sovereignty: Supreme authority within the territory. Internal: Controls people and laws (e.g., India enforces its laws). External: Independence from other states (e.g., the U.S. governs itself). 3. Population: The people living in the state’s territory who are governed. (These characteristics form the foundation of multi-level governance, where power is shared across local, regional, and national levels.) Challenges to State Power: States face challenges from two directions: From Above: International or supranational forces that limit state control. Examples: Globalization: Countries must adapt to global trade rules and economic interdependence. European Union (EU): Member states share sovereignty on issues like trade and lawmaking. From Below: Demands for autonomy or recognition from regions or local groups. Examples: Catalonia (Spain): Pushes for independence based on its unique culture and language. Scotland (UK): Seeks more self-governance or independence. Key Features: Mul level government makes decision making more complex because power and responsibili es are divided into the following; At least four levels of governance (focusing on different issues) 1. International/supranational. 2. National/central/federal. 3. Regional/meso-level. 4. Local/municipal. New questions: POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 29  New questions: What issues belong to which level? How to balance efficiency with democracy? 2. Forms of Territorial Organization A. Unitary States: Central government holds ultimate sovereignty. Sub-state units exist at the discretion of the central government; no constitutional guarantees. ( sub-state units (like regions or provinces) in a unitary state do not have legally protected rights or powers enshrined in a constitution. Instead, their powers exist only at the discretion of the * central government, which can modify, limit, or revoke these powers without constitutional restrictions.) Devolution: Central government grants decision-making powers (e.g., Scotland, Wales, Corsica). Example: France’s struggles with Corsican autonomy. B. Federal States: Sovereignty is shared between central and sub-state levels. Constitutionally entrenched/established powers for both levels; each level operates independently. Features: 1. Self-rule: Sub-states manage their own competences/ affairs with fiscal autonomy(Taxes/Budgeting) Fiscal autonomy is the ability of sub-state units to independently raise and manage their own financial resources, such as through taxation and budgeting. 2. Shared rule: Central and sub-state levels collaborate on shared issues (e.g., Canada). 3. Subsidiarity: Decisions made at the lowest possible level closest to affected populations. Conflict resolution mechanisms: 1. Written constitutions: A written document clearly outlines the powers and responsibilities of each level of government. 2. Constitutional courts: Specialized courts decide on disputes about constitutional matters, like whether a law violates the constitution or oversteps a government's authority. 3. Intergovernmental consultation: Governments at different levels meet to discuss and negotiate solutions to disagreements. This often involves dialogue instead of legal action. C. Confederations: a union of independent states that agree to work together on specific issues while keeping their full sovereignty (self-rule). Decision-Making: Actions often require all member states to agree (unanimity), which can slow decisions. Example: Organizations like NATO and the UN bring countries together for defense or global issues but leave final control to each country. POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 30  issues but leave final control to each country. Criticism: The central body is weak and cannot enforce decisions, making it inefficient and unsustainable. 3. Comparing Systems? There is no universally “better” system of territorial organization; the best choice depends on a country's unique context, such as its history, geography, and population needs. Systems differ in how sovereignty is distributed and the relationship between central and subordinate governments. Example: A federal system may work well for large, diverse countries (e.g., the U.S.), while unitary systems suit smaller, more centralized nations (e.g., France). 4. Role of Local Governments Definition: Governance specific to villages, towns, cities, or counties. Functions: Delivering essential services (e.g., transport, waste collection, fire services). Limited sovereignty: Often supervised and controlled by central government. Democracy vs. Efficiency Democracy: Local governance encourages citizen participation and aligns with the principle of subsidiarity (making decisions at the lowest appropriate level). Example, Local councils can better address community-specific issues like zoning. Efficiency: Some services are more cost-effective and practical when managed at a larger scale. Example, Regional or national authorities handling waste management ensures standardized and efficient operations. Key Takeaways Multi-Level Government: Organized across levels to address diverse policy needs. Forms of Territorial Organization: Unitary: Centralized power with possible devolution. Federal: Shared sovereignty with autonomous sub-state levels. Confederal: Voluntary unions of sovereign states. Local governments play critical roles but are often subordinate to central authorities. Next Steps: Review Newton & Van Deth, Chapter 6 (pp. 110-127). POLITICAL SCIENCE Page 31