Political Notes in English PDF

Machine Translated by Google 1 table of contents Unit-1 What is Political Theory and its Relevance Unit-2...

Machine Translated by Google 1 table of contents Unit-1 What is Political Theory and its Relevance Unit-2 Concepts of Liberty, Equality, Justice and Rights Unit-3 Issues of Post-Controversy in Political Theory (a) the principles of protective discrimination and fairness? (b) Public Vs Private Debate: Feminist Perspectives Censorship and its Limitations All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 2 Question 1 :- What is politics? Discuss liberal and Marxist understanding of politics. Answer - Introduction The word political has many layers of meaning. Its first meaning is ancient ("classical, classical traditional") relating to Greece. The word polenics is derived from the Greek word 'poles', which means non-state community, community or society. One special thing about these Garh states is that their citizens used to run their own government. Ultimately, its activities were given the name of polenics by the ancient Greek thinkers. Greek thinkers did not understand any difference between the state and the society. The desire to create a special place for oneself in the society, the desire to develop one's life and the desire to get others to talk about it, these are the things that bind people in political bonds. What is politics? The word polenics is derived from the word 'pole' in the Greek language. Which means kingdom. The ancient Greek writer Arastu begins his treatise 'Polenics' with the statement that man is by nature a political animal. Aristotle is called the father of politics. Politics is made up of politics+politics. In this, the meaning of Raj is considered to be the ruler and the word policy is used for planning. That is, in order to rule the state and to improve the standard of living of the people of the state, it is called politics to rule by planning in the right way at the right time. In the present times, the power of victory in politics and democracy has only been left to be said. If the reality is seen, then politics is the same, which politicians make compromises sitting in a closed room. In other words, we can also call it politics for the agreement made for gaining power. definition of politics Younger thinkers believed that family, education, institutions, justice, law and government all have an important role to play in making life good and therefore all of these are subjects of "politics". All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 3 Definition of politics by prominent Greek scholars: According to the animal - "Political science begins with the state and ends with the state." According to Tell - "Politics is the study of the past, present and future of the state." Hannah Arendt:- To be political or to live within a poleis means that nothing will be decided by force or violence! Instead, every decision will be made through negotiation and persuasion. “The Humi Ka Nidhi (Invention of Divine Medicine) (1959) David Easton :- Politics is concerned with the official allocation of rights to values. Hence political power seeks to find a solution to the problems which can be accepted by all. Soltu :- Politics is related to every person who has a sense of responsibility. liberal understanding of politics In a long period of art in Europe, Thomas Hobbes, George Locke, Adam Smith, Berham, J. S. Namal, G. H. Gree, Lasky, Barther, MacIver, J. B.. The liberal outlook developed in the works of thinkers like Miller, Barthick, Morris Bujther etc. The main concern of this day is that man is a selfish creature and in his pursuit of his selfish goals he is likely to clash with other men, resulting in chaos, indiscipline and chaos. Politics is a part of the social process of handling such conflict situation and managing 'conciliation' and thus ensuring law and order, protection and security. Thinkers like Hobbes, Locke, Emmett and others saw man as a selfish, egoistic being, concerned only with self- preservation and not a social or moral being. He went to the extent of saying that and this is all good, because when each individual strives to satisfy his or her own self-interest, the welfare or happiness of the society as a whole will increase to the maximum. In the liberal view, basically the individual is the real social entity and the society is the artificial one. For example, Hobbes described the society as a grain sack, in which the claimants of the grain are individuals who strive for the achievement of their own selfishness. The result of a contract between individuals to the community of Benham All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 4 Told and said that all the people are behind the attainment of their respective goals. McPherson called this concept of society a 'free market society', a meeting place of individuals engaged in the pursuit of their own interests. This society is based on will, interest and contract. But in this process libertarians accept that there is a possibility of various kinds of conflicts between individuals, between groups, between different economic classes, between groups organized on the basis of economic, geographical, cultural, regional etc. Liberalism basically recognizes that the role of society is to mediate these disputes, but later liberal writers such as Mill stressed the social nature of man and the need for everyone to cooperate. Max stressed the need for co-operation and tried to point out that for the competition to be profitable, some co-operation is necessary, without which there will be a danger of disorder and spread of violence. Without a political process, there can be no social interaction on its own. The early liberal thinkers wanted free competition between individuals and were in favor of society only setting the rules of the game. But starting from the early part of the 20th century liberals have come to the opinion that if individuals, groups, classes etc. are left free to pursue profit then a section or class will be deprived of more of the wealth, services, profit or power. Kanbaj can be done on a large part. Hence he defined politics as a process of greater integration, striving to create conditions of social justice and reconciling differences without destroying the underlying selfish structure. Explanation of this day. B. Namler's work The Nature of Political Science (1965), Barthick Nick's book The Effects of Political Science (1962) and A. Leftnitch's work can be found in What is Politics (1984). Wick also said : 'Political rule arises from the problem of individuation and does not attempt to turn everything into a single entity. Politics is a way of ruling divided societies without undue violence, and Most of the societies are Navbhajant only. All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 5 marquisian understanding of politics Karl Heinrich Marx (1818–1883) was the most influential philosopher of German Jewish origin. He was an economist and a socialist revolutionary. Although Marx discussed a wide variety of issues, he is best known for his analysis of political history from the perspective of class struggle. Its essence lies in the preamble of the Communist Manifesto: 'The history of all hitherto existing societies is the history of class-struggles.' Marx's Theology presents a different view of human nature, noting that 'existence precedes consciousness, and what a person is is determined by where and when he is - by innate behaviour. The first is the location of the social context; Or in other words, one of the main characteristics of human nature is the ability to adapt, that is, to adapt oneself to the environment. Rather, Marxist thought is based on the fundamental belief that it is human nature to transform nature. For Marx, this is a natural capacity for physical business, but it is intimately related to the active role of the human consciousness. Marx did not recognize that all people act in the same way, or that how someone acts is entirely individual or individual. Instead, he says that work is a social activity and the conditions and forms under which people work and the conditions and forms in which people work are socially determined and change over time. Marx's analysis of history is based on the distinction between the means of production such as land, natural resources, and technology needed to produce material goods, and the social and technical relations that exist between people in the process of production. Together these two (i.e. the means of production and the labor relations) constitute the mode of production. Marx said that the mode of production changes in any society, and that European societies moved from the feudal mode of production to the capitalist mode of production. Marx generally recognized that the means of production change more rapidly than the relations of production (for example, we first develop a new technology like the internet but those who do not rule that technology All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 6 Laws are explained later only). In Marx's view, this mismatch between the base (economic) and the superstructure (social) is a major cause of social alienation and conflict. By 'social relations of production' Marx meant not only relations between individuals, but also included relations between groups or classes of people. They defined classes by objective criteria, such as their possession of resources. In Marx's view, different classes have different interests, which is the root of social fragmentation and conflict. Marx suggested that history should be studied only in the context of such conflicts. Marx distinguished industrial capitalism from merchant capitalism. Merchants buy goods in one market and sell them in another. Since the law of supply and demand works inside the market, there is often a difference in the price of a commodity from one market to another. Traders then use arbitrage to buy goods in the market where the price is lower and sell it in the market where the price is higher, with the hope of capturing the difference in price between the two markets. Marx further explained that post- industrial capitalists take advantage of the difference between the wage of the worker and the market price of the goods they produce. Marx said that in a well-situated viable industry, input (input) unit-costs are lower than output unit-values, allowing for a profit margin. Marx called this difference 'supervalue' and argued that the source of supervalue is unspecialised labour. Special labor means the cost of keeping the workers alive and the cost of the goods produced by them. Marx's view of politics is thus based on the fundamental social relations between the parties and the settled working classes and on his theory-cum-prediction that capitalism results in the progressive disintegration and disintegration of the stratified working classes or the class of the proletariat. And eventually they are forced to take violent political action and then there is a revolution. Politics is thus an expression of fundamental class-difference, which results in a class struggle to wrest control of society, the economy, the state, and even the military, by the upper classes who command the modes of production. All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 7 conclusion Both the approaches to politics are based on different life dates. Liberalism, where class cooperation and class harmony are based, the Marxist ideology is based on the continuation of the spirit of class- pillar and class-navrod. The justification of any of these can be accepted or rejected only after studying them objectively. From the point of view of practice today Liberalism is on the rescue while the influence of Marxism is increasing in a big way which is undoubtedly a fact which cannot be ruled out on the basis of logic. The unfolding of people's freedoms in socialist countries is not a sign that these countries are turning towards liberal values, because the purpose and purpose of these freedoms is not to promote the exploitation of the person by the person, but to protect his personality. Develops continuously so that they can make their livelihood in accordance with the human accessible qualities and not against their will by being forced. There is no doubt that the wider world moving towards Marxism in comparison to liberalism, which supports its justification more. Question 2:- What is political theory? Discuss the revival of political theory justifying its importance. or What are the characteristics of political theory? Discuss its relevance in today's time. or What is political theory? Discuss its probability. or What is political theory? Discuss its nature and importance. All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 8 Answer - Introduction - Today's man is a rational creature who tries to understand the activities happening around him. He longs to know the socio-political system and even himself. Due to this very nature of man, many types of scriptures were born and research is going on with enthusiasm. Political theory was born because of these needs. Many political institutions and problems were thought about and conclusions were drawn, with the help of which some rules are made. These rules become principles. Political Theory (Sub Political Theory) has its own special meaning and form. What is the meaning of politics? Politics is called Politics in English, the word "Polenics" is derived from the Greek word "Ponelus", which means "fallen state". The ancient Greek writer Aristotle began his magnum opus "Paleonics" with the statement that "man is by nature a political animal." According to the animal - "Political science begins with the state and ends with the state." According to Tell - "Politics is the study of the past, present and future of the state." Because of diplomatic interests or – Political theory is called polemical theory in English. The word 'theory' is a Greek word where it was related to two other words - (i) theoria which means the way or process of understanding what is happening around us; This is called 'theorizing' and Theorema which means the conclusions that emerge as a result of this theorizing process. These are called (ii) theorems. All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 9 The first difference between these two terms is that they differentiate between the activity of theorizing and the outcome of the activity. That is, the relation of the word theorizing is an attempt to understand an environment. It is not meant to prove or validate any result or conclusion. It is only a process of search, investigation or investigation. Theorization starts around those circles which are happening around us and about which we know very little and the process of theorization starts because the theorist is dissatisfied with the incomplete knowledge of these circles and he Want to understand it in detail and at the level of explanation. Scholars have given different definitions of political theory. According to Coker, “When the political body, its form and its activities are not studied for the sake of mere study or comparison or they are not judged in terms of the time and permanent effects, but In the context of needs, desires and their votes, the environment is understood and its value is assessed, then we call it political theory. According to David Held , "Political theory is a body of concepts and broad hypotheses relating to political life, including a description of the nature and goals of government, the state and society, and the political capacities of men." According to Andrew Hecker, "Political theory is the search for a good state or society without any bias on the one hand and a mixture of unbiased knowledge of political and social realities on the other. According to John Plamentaz, "A theorist analyzes and explains the discourse of politics. He reviews all the concepts that are used during political debate. is published." All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 10 revival of political theory In the 1930s, political theory began to study the history of ideas with the aim of defending liberal democratic theory in opposition to the imperialist theories of communism, fascism, and Nazism. Lasswell attempted to establish a scientific political theory with the ultimate aim of controlling human behavior, thereby furthering the goal and vision set forth by Mary Went. Unlike the classical tradition, scientific political theory describes rather than prescribes. Political theory in the traditional sense came alive in the works of Arendt, Viktor Oro, Marcus and Leo Stoss. His views differed completely from the widespread views within American political science, as he believed in liberal democracy, science, and historical progress. They all reject political messianism and liberalism in politics. Arendt focused primarily on human individuality and responsibility, with which he began his critique of behaviorism. Nature of Political Theory The history of 'Political Theory' is very old. Mainly it can be divided into two parts:- (a) Traditional or classical dance (b) Modern Political Thought The names of Plato, Aristotle, Hobbes, Locke, Kan, Hegel, Karl Marx and Montesquieu etc. are specially mentioned in the authors related to traditional political thought. (a) Characteristics of traditional political theory: 1. Study for Solving Problems :- The influence of the surroundings of their era is clearly visible on the creations of traditional writers and they were trying to find solutions to these problems in their own way. For example, in front of 'Plato', in order to get rid of the atmosphere of mutual jealousy and discord between the states, in order to get rid of it All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 11 Formulated the theory of 'theological king'. Seeing the immediate situation of Italy, Machiavelli came to the conclusion that for the ruler to expand and strengthen his kingdom, lies, deceit, murder and all other means are justified. 2. Mainly Descriptive Studies: -Traditional anxiety is mainly descriptive. This means that only political institutions have been described in it. Hence it is neither explanatory, nor analytical, nor does it solve the political problem. 3. Influence of Philosophy, Religion and Ethics on Classical Studies :- An important feature of traditional thought is that they have been influenced by religion and religion and ethical values have existed in them.. Although it appears to some extent in the writings of Plato and Aristotle, its clearest examples came in the Middle Ages when Christian religion was transformed into monasticism. At that time, a fierce debate started regarding the relationship between the state and the 'Mith Sangh' (Church). Many scholars of Europe said that 'Church' is superior to the state and religious authorities can also interfere in worldly matters. 4. Deductive Reasoning and Normative Studies: - ' Deductive Reasoning' or 'Marker Approach' by most of the traditional writers. (Normative ) did not resort to. These authors did not use scientific innovations. 'Macical approach' means having imagined something etc. in the brain and then creating theories to put that imagination into practice. 5. Formal, Institutional and Legal :-Traditional studies were mainly related to formal cultures, traditions and laws. The major methods of its study were historical (Legal). The writers of the period described only formal cultures, without emphasizing the preservation of their behaviour. For example, Lasky and other scholars studied only the formal and legal forms of cultures in their studies. All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 12 (b) Nature of modern political theory:- As soon as the First World War started, the traditional political theory began to feel threatened, which turned into reality after the Second World War, in the general political and social conditions that arose after the Second World War, the traditional theory seemed irrelevant. In these general circumstances, changes were inevitable in the field of political science as well as political theory. Now in political science, the demand for many techniques of study, facts, units of analysis and a systematic theory started gaining momentum. Charles E. Merriam in his book 'New Aspects of Politics' clearly indicates that "Political Science will have to find a new way because political theory has come in contact with such problems that in course of time they can change its process". Will basically adjust. Empirical methods in the field of political science emphasized on making the study of politics scientific and political theorist's 'power', 'power', 'political experience', 'political influence', 'political development', 'political There was more emphasis on the concepts of 'modernization' and 'political culture' etc. Characteristics of Political Theory 1. Political theory explains the individual, society and history. They examine the nature of the individual and society: how a society is organized and functions, what are its main elements, what are the various sources of conflict, how can they be resolved, etc.. 2. Political theories are subject-specific, that is, although the aim of a thinker is to explain the nature of the state, that thinker may be a philosopher, historian, economist, mathematician or sociologist. Hence we find a variety of political theories which can be distinguished on the basis of the uniqueness of these subjects. 3. Political theory aims only at understanding political reality and It is not only to explain but also to mobilize resources for social change and speed up the economic process. As Lasky writes , the task of political theory is to All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 13 does not explain. But it is also to determine what should happen. Hence political theories recommend positive actions at the social level and means for their implementation such as reform, revolution or protection. 4. Political theory also includes ideology. Meaning of innovation in common language The system of beliefs, values and ideas that people are born into. In the modern age we find many types of ideologies like liberalism, marxism, socialism etc. From Plato till today, there is definitely a reflection of some or the other ideology in all political theories. Significance of Political Theory The existence of 'theory' gives scientific form to the subject and only because of the existence of the theory, a subject can get the distinction of being an independent discipline. The necessity and significance of 'Political Theory' is hidden in this truth itself. The following are the importance of political theory:- 1.Study of Interrelationships in Cause and Effect (To Determine Relationship Between 'Cause' and 'Effect'):-Cause and effect are interrelated. The existence of certain causes or facts gives rise to certain new types of effects - by collecting material related to different facts, different aspects of it can be observed or theoretical relationships can be drawn between those facts. All this is impossible without the existence of some theories, because theories and facts are interdependent. 2. Simplification of Knowledge :- This makes it easy to understand a subject. The theory converts many 'facts' into a symbol by establishing a model. Just as in Algebra, many things are simplified in the form of symbols so that they are easy to understand. The importance of theory is to define various facts and events by making symbols. In politics there are many symbols like husband, Legitimacy, Justice, Rights, Duties, Validity, Samata etc. All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 14 3. Search for New Research Techniques of Tools :- Searches for new research tools for experiments and inventions with the help of theory. That theory will be as useful as the one who has the ability to discover this theory. 4. Useful for Researchers :-New East has expressed the view that "If the Theoretical Framework exists first, the task of dealing with different types of facts and determining generalization will be easier Comparative studies can replicate the results or generalizations made by different researchers. 5. To Acquire Conceptual Clarity: -It is through the study of political theories that we get a clear understanding of political concepts. It is the study of political theories that helps us to understand the origin, development and other concepts of freedom, equality, justice, sovereignty and democracy. Whether a country is truly democratic or not can only be known when we analyze the principles of democracy, freedom, equality and justice. Spita can only be obtained by studying political theories. 6. Helpful in Solving Problems :- In every era and situation, the need for new theories is felt to solve the problems of that time and these theories are created. Is. Many innovations, such as Bentham, Mill, Green, Karl Marx, Mahatma Gandhi etc. emphasized on the solution of contemporary problems. Epistemology of Political Theories 1. They provide objective knowledge of the nature and objectives of the state and government. 2. It relates to social and political reality and the ideals and objectives of any society Let us assist you in setting up. 3. It informs the person about rights, duties, freedom, equality, property, justice etc. at the social level. He makes you aware. All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 15 4. They provide theoretical alternatives to understand the social and economic system and deal with the problems related to it, such as poverty, violence, corruption, casteism etc. 5. The job of theories is not only to explain the situation. This social reform or revolution Changes in the methods also present related theories. Conclusion - The existence of political theory is essential. Without this Political Science would be an incomplete discipline and would not have any special significance as Political Science. The scientific nature of this science of political subject depends only on the existence of political theory. Political theory helps to give credibility to the results of researchers. The importance of political principles always remains. That is why the basic questions raised by thinkers like Plato, Aristotle, Chanakya, Locke, Rousseau, Montesquieu, Karl Marx and Mahatma Gandhi in their works are still relevant today. Lasky, MacIver, Laswell, Wayne East etc. have special significance in the 20th century scholars. Andrew U Hecker has rightly written that, "Political theory is not divided by the boundaries of time, it has its importance even before today and will continue to have its importance in the coming times." Question 3:- Critically analyze the positive and negative concepts of liberty given by Wilson. or Discuss the negative and positive concepts of revolution. or Discuss the two concepts of freedom of movement. or Explain with examples the two concepts of discretionary liberty by Vijaya Vilavan. All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 16 Answer - Introduction - The concept of 'liberty' was developed in the Middle Ages. In the beginning, freedom was demanded against religion and society and it was said that society and religion cannot keep a person completely dependent on them. In the 15th and 16th centuries 'liberty' meant independence as opposed to monarchy. That is, the king or the state cannot completely control the lives and thoughts of the people. 'Independence' after the 17th century manifested itself in opposition to the majority and the government. In this it was assumed that the majority and the government cannot control the thoughts of the people. Freedom to think and reason is inherent in people. definition of freedom According to Seale, 'liberty is the antonym of tyranny.' According to McCain, 'Freedom is not the absence of all restraints, but the absence of coercive restraints.' J. S. According to Mill, 'Freedom is the absence of restrictions'. As sanctions every restriction is flawed and it is better to control people than to control them and leave them to their own devices.' The word liberty is derived from the Latin word 'liber', which means 'absence of fetters.' The idea of freedom is the country of the modern age. This idea was absent in the Young Age and the medieval period. According to Valosteros, 'there is no relation in human life in which he is not related to others. That is, he should be completely free. The broad sense of liberty demands restrictions on liberty.' The Two Concepts of Freedom of Independence To explain the concept of liberty, Ijaya Banalthi divides liberty into two parts. In his famous book “The Seven Septs of Liberty” published in 1969, he classified liberty into negative liberty and positive liberty3. All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 17 negative liberty The word 'negative' in positive liberty indicates that it excludes everything that limits a person's freedom. It is generally understood as freedom from interference or interference. The scope of negative liberty is determined by the answer to the question 'of which field am I the master.' Banilathi further says that 'if I am prevented from doing things which I could have done had they not prevented me, to that extent I am unfree. If other men have interfered in this area beyond a minimum limit, then it can be said that I am being abused or it can also be said that I have been enslaved. For example, suppose a person wanted to contest the election, but was prevented by other people from contesting the election by the use of force. This means that the independence of this potential candidate has been compromised. However, Banilathi clarifies that if a person is unable to achieve a goal, it means that he is not free. He wrote that only restrictions imposed by other people affect my freedom.' Negative liberty is based on two main assumptions (a) Everyone best knows his own interests. This formula is based on the assumption that individuals can reason, therefore they have the ability to reason and choose the right option based on information. (b) The role of the state is very limited. Actually, this is an extension of the previous formula. Since the individual is considered to be the agent of reason, the state cannot decide the aims and objectives of the individual. All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 18 According to Bavalvan (1969) Negative liberty in the form of freedom is not the work itself, but rather the opportunity to work. In the form of 'Opportunity concept of freedom', it emphasizes the existence of opportunity for freedom. For this it is not important that people use this opportunity. The main problem with the negative concept of freedom is that it is indifferent to the quality of any work (or activity). For example, it makes no distinction between the freedom to do the job of one's choice and the freedom to starve. Indeed, in the concept of positive liberty, poverty is not always seen as a violation of liberty. Friederike Hayek and Robert Nowak are two such thinkers, in whose writings the concept of negative liberty has been expressed. Hayek sees liberty as a negative concept. This is because it 'describes the absence of a specific barrier'. It is a specific bar – coercion by another man’. When such an opportunity presents itself, when we do something, it becomes positive. The definition of personal liberty given by Hayek is in the form of a supplement. According to it, personal liberty is 'a condition in which one man is not compelled to submit to the arbitrary will of another man.' Hayek does not consider negative liberty as an absolute concept of freedom. This is because they recognize that there must be a definite link between liberty, justice and welfare. Explaining this, he wrote that 'the concept of freedom under the law is based on the belief that we should follow the laws considering them as general abstract fixed. While doing this we should not worry about how it affects us. In doing this we do not act according to the will of any particular man, therefore we are free.' Nowzick believes that the greatest threat to a person's liberty is the imposition of responsibilities on that person without his or her consent. The liberty of the people should be protected by keeping the number of such obligations to a minimum. By doing this, there will be more possibility of voluntary agreements and mutual transactions among people. Clearly, Bonnick recognizes that for freedom All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 19 A minimum outline of rights is needed. But the most important thing is that before imposing any kind of liability on the person, taking his consent is an essential date. In "Two Concepts of Liberty" Sir Isaiah Burnett argues that there are in fact two concepts, one called Freedom. His analysis has generated much controversy. Whatever the bloodshed of the critics' responses, they fail, like Banalthi, to probe the origins of the independence divide. The main flaw in Banalthi's work lies in his assumptions, which lead to the conclusion that liberty is divided between two immutable concepts rather than complementary aspects. Pro. Reed tried to demonstrate this complementarity. In political matters, states Wilson, the word "liberty" is used in two senses: negative and positive. Behind each of these expressions is a question: "In what ways am act?" I free (affirmative); to and "Who determines what those methods are?" (Positive). The right to negative liberty is to enjoy the liberty, freedom to permit and to act. For positive liberties there are controls on those liberties that are for those liberties. positive liberty The concept of positive liberty includes the basic idea that every person's self has two parts—the higher-self and the lower-self. A person's higher-self is his or her Tanakatha self and should be dominated by the person's lower-self. Only then can one be free or independent in the sense of positive liberty. Banalthi (1969) wrote in this regard that 'the positive meaning of the word liberty arises from the desire of a man to be his own master and not to do according to the will of another man. Want to do Positive liberty does not only mean that there should be no interference. In fact, it also involves the individual being his own master and the dominance of his higher-self over his lower-self. All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 20 Positive liberty is the freedom to work. It can also be called 'Exercise concept of freedom'. Positive liberty means that the individual should use these opportunities and take advantage of them, whereas in negative liberty, the mere existence of opportunities is sufficient. Negative liberty rejects the idea of any kind of direction to the individual from outside. On the other hand, positive liberty accepts as an alternative the idea that individuals should be guided by the law or an elite. If the law directs the individual to move towards the goals of reason, it liberates (or liberates) the individuality of the individual rather than suppressing it. Rousseau was a supporter of positive liberty. He emphasized that true freedom can be achieved only by following the moral laws. They also recognize that moral laws are the will and expression of rational people. Herbert Marcuse has also supported the positive concept of freedom from the anti-Marxist point of view. He believes that the working class is unable to see its true benefits. Therefore, there is a need that the revolutionary Anbhija should guide him to move forward towards liberation. Positive liberty also includes the idea that there should be collective control over normal life. Thus, collective action is needed to keep the environment pollution-free and benefit all the people. It is possible that some degree of coercion has to be used for this, but it is usually accepted because it is in everyone's interest. Many liberal thinkers, including Barlith, have taken the view that the positive of liberty is also associated with the fact that rulers can become despotic. Consider this a threatened minority group with a permanent concept that always has to suffer. The members of this minority group participate in a democratic process whose main feature is the rule of the majority. In this case, it can be said that they are free because they are citizens of a democratically ruled country. But in spite of this, this group being in minority may suffer loss of power and in such a situation it cannot be considered independent. All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 21 Conclusion - thus implicit the relationship between self-control, maturity, and the interpretation and application of general standards. Imposes freedom as separation rather than sharing. The political consequences of his thought are increasing divisiveness and injustice in the name of freedom. He succumbs to the paradox of freedom. However, Reid believes that the paradox can be resolved by the realization that at the expense of justice, some freedom to act does not diminish. Question 4 :- What do you understand by 'equality of opportunity'? or What do you mean by equality of opportunity? or Discuss the idea of 'equality of opportunity'. Answer - Introduction - 'Equality' does not mean that everyone should be equal in every way. This is impossible. Samita refers to the Samita of opportunity. Everyone should be treated equally by the state. No one should be discriminated against because of caste, color, creed, religion etc. No class or community or community should be given special rights. Therefore, equality refers to the existence of such conditions due to which all individuals can get equal opportunities for development and social discrimination can end. Also, social justice can be established. In the words of Lasky, “Equity does not mean that everyone is treated equally or that everyone is given equal pay. If the salary of a stone-carrier is changed to that of a famous mathematician or scientist, then the very purpose of the society will be defeated. Therefore, equality means that there should be no privileged class and everyone should have equal opportunities for advancement. All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 22 equality of opportunity There is considerable difference of opinion on the definition and meaning of social opportunity. Broadly it means such a social environment in which individuals are not discriminated in access to education, employment, health care etc. on the basis of such things (immutable traits) Various measures are taken by the government and institutions for the creation and enforcement of equal opportunities. Equal opportunity organizations No discrimination on the basis Does it Race Marital status Carers' responsibilities Disability Age Political conviction Religious belief Many people are of the view that the principle of equality is just a joke whereas the principle of equal opportunity can be brought down to the practical plane and is more useful. The goal of the policy of equal opportunity is to ensure diversity in the institution. In social context, equality means that situation in a society in which all the people of that society have equal (different) rights or status. Equal rights before law is a minimum requirement for social equality which includes security, right to vote, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, property rights, equal access to social goods and services etc. Social equity also includes health equity, economic equity, and other social security. Apart from this, equal opportunities and responsibilities also come under it. All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 23 Equality of opportunity is established through keeping professions or occupations open to talented individuals, providing fair equal opportunities, and through changes to the positive discrimination principle. All of these work in such a way that the system of inequality seems logical and acceptable. The implicit assumption is that since competition is fair, profit is automatically beyond criticism. There is no doubt that such a system will give birth to people who will only focus on their talents and personal innate qualities. This often deprives them of any sense of community with their people, as they can only think in terms of competition. Perhaps it might just give rise to a community that would be a community of successful people on the one hand, and a community of unsuccessful people on the other that would blame themselves for their perceived failure. Another problem with the endowment of opportunity is that it tends to create a dichotomy between the successes and failures of one generation and the next. Equality of opportunity provides equal opportunity to compete in a system that we have been traditional to. If so, it probably does not appear to be an egalitarian principle. Limitation of opportunity, thus leading to an egalitarian society based on a high standard of merit. The argument is that those differences which appear on the basis of different natural qualities like talents, skills, labor etc., are morally tenable. Differences that stem from traditions or socially large differences such as poverty, homelessness are not tenable. However, the truth is that it is a specific social prejudice that makes any natural difference like beauty or intelligence a relevant basis to explain the differences in the society. According to this we can say that the distinction between nature and tradition is not as clear cut as egalitarians suggest. All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 24 The libertarian idea of sufficiency is based on the sufficiency of opportunity. This equivalency is against any wild assumption because, these are the possibilities that lead to unequal outcomes. This theory is thus concerned with the results and is only interested in the process. This is entirely in keeping with the liberal idea that the individual is the basic unit of society and that society must create opportunities for them to pursue their own interests. Does this mean that egalitarians will ignore equality of opportunity? Question 5 :- Define justice. Critically examine Rawls' theory of justice ÿ or What is meant by justice? Review the views of John Rawls on Justice. or What is justice? Discuss Rawls' theory of justice. or Evaluate the theory of justice of John Rawls. or Discuss John Rawls' theory of justice and its feminist criticism. or Examine Rawls' theory of justice. Answer - Introduction – Born in America, George Rawls was interested in understanding social problems since his childhood. John Rawls was a liberal, political philosopher and a man of extraordinary genius. In his youth, John Rawls introduced his intellectuality by understanding the social differences and getting his thoughts published in letters and magazines. John Rawls in 1950 put forward his first idea 'Justice as Fairness' All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 25 Started writing and it was first published in 1957. This idea was further recognized by John Rawls as the basis of his 'Theory of Justice'. According to John Rawls' theory of justice, everyone should have an equal right to the broadest basic liberties consistent with equal liberties for others. According to the principle of social liberty, all the people of the society should be given certain freedoms which are basic to human existence. Meaning and definitions of justice The English translation of the word 'justice' is 'Justice'. The word 'Justice' is derived from the Latin language 'Jus', which means 'to join' or 'to pair'. Thus justice has a natural connection with the law. Therefore, we can say that justice is the name of that system which divides individuals, communities and groups in one thread. It is justice to maintain a system, because any system grows or flourishes only after connecting certain elements with each other. According to Merriam, "Justice is the sum total of those beliefs and procedures through which each person receives all the rights and facilities that the society considers appropriate." According to Mill, " Justice is the name of those moral rules which are related to the notions of human-welfare and therefore more important than any other rules for the progress of life." In the words of Riffel, "Justice is the name of that system by which individual rights are protected and the limits of society are maintained." Rawls's theory of justice George Rawls was a great moral thinker and American liberal philosopher of the twentieth century. He published one of his books in 1971. Whose name was 'A Theory Of Justice'. Known as the messiah of social justice. Rawls' ideas still leave a deep mark in political thought. All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 26 Justice Theory of John Rawls – Rawls wanted to end social discrimination. Rawls' theory of justice in his book 'A Theory Nadya in 'Of Justice'. By the way, the history of the problem of justice is very old. But there has been a demand for justice in every era. People are always and in every age worried about their social life. They want that there should be no discrimination in social life. To eradicate this social disparity (samaj) gave the principle-justice. Rawls's theory of justice is based on 'what should be the moral and equitable basis of allocating various goods, services, opportunities, benefits etc. among different classes, individuals and groups of the society'. Rawls believes that it is futile to imagine social justice unless there is a just distribution of goods and services etc. primary goods. To solve this problem many thinkers have formulated ideas in their own way. One of those thinkers and dancers is George Rawls. Robert Andrews has said that Rawls aimed to develop a theory that would help us understand the basic structure of society. Jeremy Bentham's theory of Utilitarianism talks about 'Greatest Happiness Of The Greatest Number'. In relation to this idea of Benham, George Rawls says that this principle hinders the just distribution of primary goods. In the process of identifying the maximum happiness of the maximum number of people, Benm forgets to tell that how much loss is being caused to the individual. Criticizing Bentham's theory that no amount of "increasing" the happiness of the happy people is given, it cannot equalize the unhappiness of the unhappy. Presented the principle of 'as reasonableness'. Rawls believes that in the principle of 'Berm' the claims of the minority are crushed by the majority. One cannot sacrifice the freedom of others for the happiness of the majority. Rawls is of the view that we should follow the laws of priority. Because the oppressed people are oppressed less by the lack of primary resources, but more by the emotional waste. So system change becomes necessary to change their future. All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 27 Rawls, on the other hand, based his theory of justice on the ideas of compromise. For this reason it is also called Rawls' theory of justice. He believes that the social compromise theory is the best alternative to the traditional utilitarian theory. Because this agreement is based on consent between war and free individuals, in this men and women come together to make a social agreement. Rawls's consent is based on the 'Basic Position of Samata'. In this, people are rational and lead their lives on the principle of equality. while the compromiser Hobbes's representation of the natural state was abnormal or barbaric. Here Rawls emphasizes the original position. This situation can only be helpful in building fair principles of justice. Because in this being armed with prejudices, no bargaining or compromise can be done. In this way, Rawls has accepted justice as 'justice fair' only by conceiving the idea of the original position. These virtues of 'justice unfairness' should be the priority of the behavior of social institutions so that social justice can be reached to its objectives. John Rawls has taken the support of two rules in his theory of justice-- a. Everyone has the same right to the most fundamental freedoms and the same right to others. b. Social and economic inequalities should be managed in such a way that the least advantaged persons get the most benefit and these inequalities should be managed in such a way that posts and positions are open to all under fair equality of opportunity. Both the principles mean that the inequalities of property and power should be implemented in such a way that it is in consonance with the social liberty desired under the first principle. But even when the society achieves the desired level of prosperity, those people who are receiving social and economic benefits from the society will have to retain most of their common liberties. Rawls has given more importance to the first principle than to the second principle. This is because people below a level of 'prosperity' cannot exercise their freedom effectively. But even after attaining that level, people still give importance to freedom in comparison to social and economic things. Social, spiritual and cultural interests and political -only- All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 28 They also start giving importance to participation. He believes that freedom also helps in achieving self-respect. The meaning of Rawls's social and political and the concept of society is that it envisages a constitutional democracy with political and intellectual freedom, an egalitarian society. Freedom is not absolute in Rawls' theory of justice. But they do want proper use of freedom - order and security - in economically backward societies. Freedom is not absolute. But such restrictions can be imposed for the sake of peace, high economic growth in the society. These restrictions are not insignificant either. When we look at the conclusion - liberties - after the study of Rawls's theory of social justice, we find that the basic belief of Rawls is also that the state will not interfere in the origin of the individual. George Rawls' "Distributive Justice" is related to procedural justice. This means creating a social system that dispenses justice through social policies. Criticism of John Rawls' theory of justice 1. Criticism by Michael Sandel: Michael Sandel has rejected the claim of George Rawls that justice is the first virtue of social institutions. The virtue of fraternity is more or equally important than justice. Where there is a sense of brotherhood and altruism, there will be no conflict among individuals. There will be no appeal to justice, the presence of brotherhood limits the inevitability of justice. For this reason, Sandel has written – “Justice is not the first virtue of social institutions as it is the speech of truth principles. But it is true that as in the battle field there is physical courage. 2. Criticism by David Miller - Miller says that George Rawls' theory of justice does not adopt the descriptive theory of necessity which is an integral part of the general theory of justice. In George Rawls' theory of justice, resources are distributed in such a way that the least advantaged person gets the maximum benefit from it. In this way the principle of distribution of wants loses its universality. All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 29 3. Criticism by Naresh Dardich - George Rawls's conception of the basic conditions for the establishment of his theory of justice is an incomplete description of human nature. In the original state of John Rawls, man is considered to be rational. Whereas the truth is that humans have natural tendencies in which both good and bad exist. By referring to the post of ignorance, John Rawls has given the theory of justice itself irrational and misleading. George Rawls has no criteria for what rational tendencies are. Unreasonable tendencies are automatically associated with any unwise decision. Thus George Rawls, like Hobbes, describes human nature as a single entity that cannot be justified. Similarly, while talking about equal freedom, George Rawls has laid more emphasis on political freedom. This is the reason why George Rawls's theory of justice is inconsistent with terrorism. It is full of imagination and idealism. 4. Criticism by Marxists – Criticism has a special place among Marxist thinkers..B. McPherson has said that John Rawls is the nurturer of the capitalist economy. He has supported the system of private ownership like Mills, because in his view the system of private ownership is the most protection of individual freedoms. Whereas the truth is just the opposite. It is absurd to reconcile freedom and individual rights with a meaningful society in a capitalist market society. In capitalism, it is not possible to maintain the rights and freedoms of the individual under any circumstances. Like McPherson, other scholars have also criticized the theory of John Rawls. According to Milt Fisk and Rich Miller, the theory of class struggle of John Rawls is not supported. It is the protector of the inventions of capitalism. In a capitalist society, there is no guarantee that the well-off class will take care of the unmarried class. Similarly, other scholars also say that without understanding the economic and social facts and determining the principles of justice, logic is not consistent. John Rawls has placed man in such a basic situation where he does not have knowledge of socio-economic facts due to variations in the degree of ignorance. It cannot be fair to understand any moral system without class-use and production systems. Anti-Marxists have called George Rawls's Theory of Justice: illogical, utopian, and fomenting capitalism. All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 30 5. Criticism by Liberals - Liberals have misconstrued John Rawls's postulate of the social contract and ignorance of the original position. The form in which John Rawls has tried to reconcile liberalism. John Rawls's 'Theory of Fairness of Justice' can only be based on moral norms outside the purview of the state. In the field of state action, the concept of circular justice is just the opposite. Similarly, it is not justified to use the beneficiaries as a tool for the less beneficiaries. John Rawls has also sacrificed the freedom of man by giving more emphasis on equality. In such a situation, the imagination of the progress of the society is useless. Therefore, George Rawls' theory of justice is inconsistent with and inconsistent with the dignity of the individual. 6. Criticism by communitarians - The theory of justice of John Rawls has also been criticized by communitarian thinkers - Alasdair Macintyre, Charles Baylor, Michael Walzer. Alasdair Macintyre says that John Rawls has neglected the recognition of merit. Similarly, John Rawls has not been able to separate himself from individualistic beliefs and by adopting the policy of moral purity, John Rawls has lost the opportunity to adopt a life system dedicated to the Common Good. Similarly, John Rawls imagines man as a completely autonomous and selfish man. In essence, the truth is that the concept of 'community' is missing in George Rawls's theory of justice. 7. Criticism by totalitarians - socialist thinkers say that the theory of justice of John Rawls - just repeats the justification of the traditional liberal capitalist system in which it is believed that the poor people also benefit when the disputants have the freedom to collect It is soft. Due to this, only the investments of the capital class are protected. George Rawls' theory of equality of opportunity may make a million efforts, it cannot find the gap between the rich and the poor. Similarly, George Rawls's theory also fails to recognize who the people with the warmest status are. Justice All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 31 conclusion John Rawls did not specify in his theory of justice on what basis - individuals or groups - would be considered ideal. If it is identified only on economic grounds, then it will violate the talent or ability of the person, it can hurt the emotional security of the person. Thus George Rawls's theory of justice has been heavily criticized by Marxists, communitarians, constructivists, and libertarians. But this does not mean that George Rawls' theory of justice is unimportant. The truth is that George Rawls' theory of justice is the most important of all his predecessors. John Rawls has given his indication towards the welfare nature of modern governments by propounding the concept of social justice. In the modern age, in all constitutional and liberal democracies, all governments run their welfare programs only for the attainment of social justice, the fundamental social justice and - Justice of John Rawls: lays the foundation of liberal democracy. That is why it is of eternal importance in the history of political thought. Question 6:- What do you understand by protective discrimination? Do you think that protective discrimination violates the principle of neutrality? Give reasons in support of your answer. or The use of protective discrimination establishes the principle of neutrality? Explain. or Does protective discrimination violate the principles of fairness? Please comment. or Do you think that affirmative discrimination is against the rule of reason? explain ÿ or All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 32 What do you understand about the principle of equity in relation to 'protective discrimination'? or What is meant by 'protective discrimination'? Does it violate the principle of equity? or Do you believe that constructive discrimination has strengthened the principle of fairness? Give reasons in support of your answer. or Do you agree that protective discrimination defies the principles of justice? Give reasons in support of your argument. Answer - Introduction Inequality and injustice have been a part of all societies and India is no different in this regard. After the specific power moved out of India, the framers of the Indian Constitution recognized the seriousness of the problem and introduced protective discrimination to combat evil practices such as the caste system. As per the Constitution of India, various institutions were provided for the social welfare of the weaker sections. By protective discrimination, the state intentionally grants privileges to certain groups on the basis of caste, religion, gender and spatial status. The doctrine of protective discrimination is also known by the names of reservation, reverse discrimination, affirmative action and special treatment, etc. concept of protective discrimination Protective discrimination refers to a policy by which the state deliberately discriminates against its citizens on the basis of certain criteria in order to protect the interests of the most vulnerable among them. This policy is formulated to protect those people who are underprivileged by the society and who have faced discrimination in the past or at present. It is a program of affirmative action taken up by the State, so that All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 33 Right to equality to all sections of the society and justice to all equally. The nature and structure of these provisions have been analyzed in the context of India by analyzing the concept of social justice. Its objective is to distribute social values, goods and opportunities to the disadvantaged people with priority in order to reduce business discrimination and exploitation in the society and to provide equality, to provide opportunities equally and with them the characteristics of equality. Uses policy to behave. The main purpose of protective discrimination is to protect the vulnerable sections of the society, who have been socially and historically neglected, who have been exploited. In order to save these people from the leadership of the rich and wealthy people, efforts are being made to bring them into the political mainstream by giving them wide opportunities. Ideally, the state treats all citizens equally in its legal perspective and treats them equally. However, the modern liberal state has recognized the need to treat its citizens differently from specific socio-economic backgrounds. If a significant proportion of the State population is subjected to discriminatory social practices and such practices have affected the rights of the victims to live a dignified life and prevented them from enjoying the resources provided by the State, then that proportion of the population is liable to be expropriated. The injustice done in the past against the desired groups is redressed by the state through its agencies by granting privileges to these groups. Untouchability has been abolished in India by Article 17 of the Constitution, but it still exists widely in subtle or overt forms against the lower castes. It is necessary to adopt some definite and strong measures to create a new social order by eradicating these social evils. All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 34 According to some scholars, the following arguments have been presented in favor of defensive discrimination:- The wealth of opportunities is very poor and it will not exist if it is not made more effective. Causality between inequality and the poor, illiteracy and the socially and culturally backward There is a relationship. Any system of allocation of goods and services would lead to exhaustion of opportunities and would be unfair if the allocation is done unequally to different sections of the society. Protective discrimination is one of many means to correct imbalances in the allocation of goods and services. This process does not violate the principle of fairness. Democracy has no meaning, if vertical inequality is not changed into horizontal inequality. At the time of India's independence, there was a huge economic and social gap between the upper castes and the lower castes. The main objective of the architects of the Indian constitution was to build an egalitarian society, justice (social, economic and political) should prevail and there should be equality of status and opportunity. Therefore, it is not a matter of any importance that the spirit of inclusiveness is prominently reflected in the provisions of the Constitution of India. The fundamental right of equality before the law has been guaranteed to all the citizens in the constitution. But it is also mentioned in the constitution that “Nothing in the constitution shall prevent the state from working for the advancement and progress of any socially and educationally backward classes of citizens and the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. It will have the power to make provisions regarding special measures for the advancement and progress of the deserving people of the society. Some of the provisions in the Constitution of India are as follows: Articles 15 and 16 (Denial of Equality), Article 46 (Provisions Relating to the Educational and Economic Disadvantages of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes) and Article 340 (for the welfare of other backward classes). The major areas where the state has promoted protective discrimination are education, welfare work and economic activities (housing, land reform etc.) public services and political representation Political All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 35 It is mandatory to follow the provisions and policies of representation, apart from this, in all other matters, the work of discrimination protected by the constitution is left to the discretion of the state. principle of neutrality Before understanding the principle of fairness, let us know the theory of justice of Rawls, on which the principle of fairness is based. The concept of fair justice is mentioned by John Rawls in his book A Theory of Justice. According to Rawls, certain moral principles are necessarily applicable to us because they would be acceptable in the "original state of reasoned beings". For him justice is not natural law, nor is it based on reason but fair distribution based on fair process. Rawls believes that all individuals in a society do not have the same knowledge nor do they live in the same economic and social conditions. Introducing the idea of the cover or substance of ignorance, Rawls says that it is this substance that not only separates people from other people but also separates them from other people like themselves who are the lowest in society. There are people with hearing. Therefore, one of the important demands of justice is that the least privileged sections of the society should also be taken care of. Justice, according to him, is the distribution of all benefits among all members of society, not in proportion to what one individual does, but in such a way that the weakest among the weakest sections receive its benefits. Rawls feels that this type of distribution of benefits is not only fair but it is also in accordance with the standards of justice. Fair justice is where there must exist a fair system of association between free and equal persons. The objective of fair justice seeks those appropriate principles, they are the product of the agreement that people make for mutual benefit. When people have achieved free and equal status, they feel as though they need the same fundamental substances in order to achieve their conception of the good. These primary things are basic rights, freedom, opportunity, income, wealth and self-respect. All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 36 The principle of fairness says that if a lot of people produce public goods, we get the benefits. It would not be ethically acceptable that we get those goods free of cost, avail services and avail the benefits of goods without incurring any expense or paying their cost. It is our duty that we get the benefit by paying a reasonable cost of production of goods. To begin with, the principle of objectivity was first formulated by H.L. A. Hart and then by Rawls. Both of these present a principled understanding based on the distribution of burdens and benefits in relation to the production of public goods in a fair scheme of cooperation. As per the principle of fairness, it is our duty not to expect free goods or services, under a fair scheme of cooperation. If some people work together to produce a public good, then a person should not enjoy any benefit without contributing to the production of that good. This is a non-consequentialist moral obligation, because the basic argument here is not to avoid the bad consequences of short supply but to establish a standard of justice. Underlying this underlying understanding is that it would be unfair to those who contribute to the creation of public goods if those who benefit from these goods do nothing to produce them. This principle can be used to justify certain social and political responsibilities. In fact, it is used in theology and social policy, to support services that are related to the good, or in response to some of the inequalities created by globalization. Libertarians such as Bonzik and Flue disagree with Rawls and reject his claim that those who suffer naturally should claim those who have a hearing. They believe in merit, excellence and natural inequalities in human beings. Defense Discrimination vs. Neutrality Doctrine When talking of equity, we are not just talking in the sense of legal equity or equity of opportunity, but in terms of equity of conditions and consequences. The son of a doctor and the son of a poor man get equal opportunities, but fair justice demands that the social climate must change if everyone is to be given an equal start. However, for this we have to take collective consent, not to favor those people who are at the loss of the society. All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 37 are lying Further, “equality before law” and “equal protection of law” say that not everyone should be treated equally. Criticism The idea of protective discrimination has become a matter of debate and discussion among the world's debaters. Those who oppose this say that one discrimination has been replaced by another. Procedural equity advocates favor a market-based economy where resources should be allocated on the basis of merit. However, merit must be viewed in a social and cultural context and the definition of merit must be culturally biased to prevent dominance by dominant interests. The second point of criticism is that affirmative action was meant to be a temporary measure but it has become permanent because those in power derive political benefits from it. Target groups generally benefit from those who are already better off. The benefits do not reach those people who are really at loss and are actually the deserving people. There can be many arguments against protective discrimination, but distributive justice cannot be easily brushed aside in a national society like India. It is justified because of moral necessity. conclusion It can be said that in order to establish a fair and just society, we have to differentiate between the weaker sections and the sensitive sections on the one hand and the wealthy and the privileged sections of the society on the other. For democracy to flourish, we have to bring the status of the destitute and disadvantaged people at par with that of a prosperous society. Real justice will be done only when its benefits reach those who are actually entitled to it. Providing social justice to the needy not only strengthens the claim of equality but it also strengthens democracy. All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 38 Question 7:- Discuss sex/gender philosophy in feminism. or What is meant by 'the person in politics' in feminist political theory? or Vanji is the only politician. Explain it with reference to feminist perspective. or Examine the radical feminist perspective on patriarchy. Answer - Introduction - Initially the word 'sex' (or gender) was used to describe the moral difference between men and women. Similarly the term 'gender' came to be used to convey a broader cultural meaning related to this basic difference. Feminist feminists, in particular, Margaret, have shown that masculinity and pregnancy have been understood differently in different cultures. Feminists have argued that the moral structure of men and women is not necessarily designed to establish and maintain certain differences between men and women from the time of upbringing. From childhood, boys and girls are trained in such a way that gender based differences are established between them on the basis of behaviour, sports, dress etc. Nariada why or The word Jaarivaad is made up of two words- Jaari + Vaad, Jaari means woman or woman and Vaad means tradition, thus Jaariwad means to be endowed with the qualities of Jaari and Jaariwad refers to the same tradition, path and path. is helpful. The qualities of pregnancy are inculcated in the Feminist girls from the very beginning. All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 39 feminism sex/gender The biggest contribution of chauvinism has been to establish distinction between sex and gender. 'Sex' is a genetic term, which refers to the genetic difference between male and female. The same word 'Gender' refers to the social discrimination between men and women. From the word gender, we get an indication that apart from the biological distinction, all the differences that are visible are created by the society instead of being natural and it also implies that if this distinction is made then it is far away. Can be done. The process of socialization is behind the discrimination against women in the society, under which boys and girls are brought up differently since childhood. We can see this fact around us too. Girls are taught to do domestic chores while boys are made to be kind, gentle, service minded, warm and homely and cultured outside girls while boys/men are made to be strong, powerful tough and heroic. This rigid idea of gender perpetuates a patriarchy that puts men on top and women on the bottom. Vanji is the politician Liberals have traditionally held that individuals' personal lives and the economy are their private subjects. In both the field of Shariwaist politics and patriarchy, Shariwaists have been continuously criticizing the traditional Shariwans. Feminists have been continuously accusing the traditional women's women of deliberately boycotting the private sector. The state has the power and legitimacy to intervene in the public sphere, but the state's personal servitude argument is that most of the oppression, exploitation, and abuse that happens to women takes place inside the home. The domestic world is perceived outside the state and patriarchy is promoted by the state. The liquor barons have widened the scope of politics. They say that politics is a game of influence and dominance. This means that all relations are political and politics is not just limited to the public and government sphere, rather it is involved in all aspects of our life including private life. All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 40 This was a time when women in the family had the most exposure, so the womenfolk talked about making it public. The study of Susan Moller Okin is important in this context. This division, according to him, has taken the family out of the realm of the concept of politics. Ignoring the justice problem of Nadi-Pranadi, the family has been thrown out of politics. Due to this neglect, gender oppression, injustice and inequality have increased. You say that the personal sphere is the sphere of influence. The interpretation of certain things within the private sphere separates it from the political sphere, such as who can marry, what are the requirements of marriage? What are the conditions for dissolution of marriage, etc. Family practice and heterosexuality expose children to social norms. This is a field of action that promotes the creation of patriarchy. The gendered division of labor becomes an essential part of patriarchy all the while acting on her autonomy and agency. Vasanthya Inloi in "Bananas, Beaches and Businesses" (2000) takes this debate a little further and declares that 'the Personal is International' The image is created by domestic politics which is further fueled by gender roles within the family. patriarchy Patriarchy is prevalent in every human society. It is a system based on inequality through which those women are suppressed, exploited and abused. It perpetuates gendered division of labor and sexism. It characterizes and protects male sexuality. Patriarchy is a game of husband in which man enjoys it at the cost of freedom, health, happiness of woman. Garth Larner, in his analysis of patriarchy, states that women's reproductive capacity makes it easier for men to denigrate them. Patriarchy shapes our understanding and interpretations. This is a world in which men become the yardstick of everything, women are of no importance. On which the same thing has been repeated again and again to maintain this social order. In this case the patriarchy has to All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 41 Whereas the truth is that this system was created centuries ago by the society so that these patriarchies keep women always on the surface in the world of men. Gender stereotypes are promoted and reinforced in cinema, literature, painting, fiction, poetry and art, etc., in many influential social systems. Violence against women comes in many forms and from many angles. There are some gender related violence like sexual assault, harassment, rape, marital rape, domestic violence, trafficking, forced prostitution etc. In this the man does his husband to establish his reputation dominance. It is a deliberate attempt to prevent women from entering public places. radical feminism The rise of Radical Zarism took place in the 1960s in the second phase of Zarism. It expanded the understanding about gender analysis and sought the root cause responsible for the oppression of women. He gave the important points of gender equality and violence against women and told that the main reason for this is the secondary status of women and their want. Responsibilities of women's reproductive capacity, upbringing and family character appeared due to the perpetual captive status of women. Spread awareness on various aspects of women's power and exploitation by fierce drug addicts and suggest political and strategic measures to get rid of them. 'Debates based on personal experiences have determined that the root cause of all this is patriarchy. Women were now freed from the oppression of men in the family as well as the oppression and exploitation of men in power. Women broke their silence and exposed their problems which earlier they knew only their personal problems. It was a strategy based on the self-awareness that the problems faced by all women are the same and can be solved through collective and political effort. Its main theme was "the individual is the policy". All Rights reserved ÿ Manish Verma : DU SOL. Channel, Visit https://joshbadhao.com/ Machine Translated by Google 42 Conclusion – Various sections addressing various feminist issues, including the human rights of women, are moving towards achieving their objective by marking their footsteps. As a result of being influenced by different countries, times and environment, according to their respective environment, different streams of Feminist principles are influencing the lives of women by fulfilling their important objectives. The Zionist movement is no longer limited to the intellectual world only and is spreading through the corridors of various countries and pulsating in the support of the Jews. With the belief that each and every river half of the world's population will get their rights and respect very soon. Feminist thinkers want to change the environment and environment of women due to which their personality could not develop. Feminism talks about changing the mindset and intellectual skills of women and men. In today's context, Shaivism ideology should be seen as an autonomously developing line of thought. Which is based on the critical analysis of male discrimination and female adoption. Today in all the nations of the whole world whether it is developed nation or under developing, African or Asian nation' the women of the world are engaged in the corners of saving their rights, justice, morality, c