Pointers to Review Module 5 and 6 PDF

DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND Cabambangan, Villa de Bacolor 2001, Pampanga, Philippines ARCHITECTURE Tel. No. (6345) 458 0021; Fax (6345) 458 0021 Local 211 URL: http://dhvsu....

DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND Cabambangan, Villa de Bacolor 2001, Pampanga, Philippines ARCHITECTURE Tel. No. (6345) 458 0021; Fax (6345) 458 0021 Local 211 URL: http://dhvsu.edu.ph DHVSU Main Campus, Villa de Bacolor, Pampanga E-Mail Address: [email protected] MODULE 5 Water resources engineering is a specialty dealing with the use of water in support of modern living, including the agricultural, industrial, domestic, recreational, and environmental needs Water in our planet is available in the atmosphere, the oceans, on land and within the soil and fractured rock of the earth’s crust. Water molecules from one location to another are driven by the solar energy. Moisture circulates from the earth into the atmosphere through evaporation and then back into the earth as precipitation. In going through this process, called the Hydrologic Cycle (Figure A.1), water is conserved – that is, it is neither created nor destroyed. Precipitation occurs when atmospheric moisture becomes too great to remain suspended in clouds. It denotes all forms of water that reach the earth from the atmosphere, the usual forms being rainfall, snowfall, hail, frost and dew. Once it reaches the earth’s surface, precipitation can become surface water runoff, surface water storage, glacial ice, water for plants, groundwater, or may evaporate and return immediately to the atmosphere. Ocean evaporation is the greatest source (about 90%) of precipitation. Rainfall is the predominant form of precipitation and its distribution over the world and within a country. Runoff is the water that flows across the land surface after a storm event. As rain falls over land, part of that gets infiltrated the surface as overland flow. As the flow bears down, it notches out rills and gullies which combine to form channels. These combine further to form streams and rivers. The geographical area which contributes to the flow of a river is called a river or a watershed. Reservoirs: Artificial or natural inland body of water used to store water to meet various demands..Evapotranspiration is actually the combination of two terms – evaporation and transpiration. The first of these, that is, evaporation is the process of liquid converting into vapour, through wind action and solar radiation and returning to the atmosphere.. Transpiration is the process by which water molecules leaves the body of a living plant and escapes to the atmosphere. The water is drawn up by the plant root system and part of that is lost through the tissues of plant leaf (through the stomata). In areas of abundant rainfall, transpiration is fairly constant with variations occurring primarily in the length of each plants growing season. However, transpiration in dry areas varies greatly with the root depth. Evapotranspiration, therefore, includes all evaporation from water and land surfaces, as well as transpiration from plants. Hydraulic Engineers design artificial waterways such as canals, channels, and aqueducts as well as manage water movement by designing and constructing dams, levees, canal locks, and other water-regulating devices Fluid is a term that describes both gases and liquids. Generally, these forms are distinguished by the bonds between adjacent molecules (or atoms) that compose them. Buoyancy is the uplifting force exerted by water on a submerged solid object. Common experience tells us that a heavy rock seems lighter when held under water. This is due to the buoyancy of water. Discharge, or rate of flow, Q, describes the amount of water passing through an imaginary plane per unit time at a particular location along the conduit. The parameter Q is measured as volume per unit time, typically cubic feet per second (cfs) or cubic meters per second (m3/s). FLOOD CONTRO In Webster’s New International Dictionary, a ‘flood’ is defined as a ‘great flow of water... especially, a body of water, rising, swelling, and over-flowing land not usually thus covered; a deluge; a freshet; an inundation’. Commonly, it is considered to be a phenomenon associated with an unusually high stage or flow over land or coastal area, which results in severe detrimental effects. ‘Flood control’ implies all measures taken to reduce the detrimental effects of flood.  Flood Management Measures Short-term Measures: These measures are adopted for giving quick results when immediate relief to some pockets or locations is felt necessary and they are respectively: Constructions of embankments along the low-level banks that are subject to frequent flood spells. Construction of raised platforms for temporary shelter during flood. Dewatering by pumps of flooded pockets, towns when gravity discharge of floodwater is not possible. 82 | P a g e  DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND Cabambangan, Villa de Bacolor 2001, Pampanga, Philippines ARCHITECTURE Tel. No. (6345) 458 0021; Fax (6345) 458 0021 Local 211 URL: http://dhvsu.edu.ph DHVSU Main Campus, Villa de Bacolor, Pampanga E-Mail Address: [email protected] Construction of floodwalls near congested areas of cities, towns and industrial belts. Long-term Measures: Construction of storage reservoirs to moderate the flow peak thereby ensuring regulation of flood downstream. Integrated watershed management in the hilly area catchment, which ensures reduction in surface runoff, erosion and increase of infiltration capacity thereby reducing the impact of flood. Flood forecasts and warning based on hydro-geomorphological studies which can be given with some lead period, thereby ensuring minimization of property loss and loss of human life by shifting them to safer places. Spillways are invariably provided in storage dams for safe disposal of the excess water flowing into the reservoir after it has filled up. Spillways may have simple overflow crests or may have controlled crests with gates. Irrigation involves artificially providing crops with water. This technique is used in farming to enable plants to grow when there is not enough rain, particularly in arid areas. It is also used in less arid regions to provide plants with the water they need when seed settin It is essential to know the water requirement of a crop which the total quantity of water is required from its sowing time up to harvest. Naturally different crops may have different water requirements at different places of the same country, depending upon the climate, type of soil, method of cultivation, effective rain etc. The total water required for crop growth is not uniformly distributed over its entire life span which is also called crop period. Actually, the watering stops same time before harvest and the time duration from the first irrigation during sowing up to the last before harvest is called base period. Though crop period is slightly more than the base period, they do not differ from practical purposes. Sometimes, in the initial stages before the crop is sown, the land is very dry. In such cases, the soil is moistened with water as to helps in sowing the crops. This is known as paleo irrigation. A term kor watering is used to describe the watering given to a crop when the plants are still young. It is usually the maximum single watering required, and other watering are done at usual intervals. The total depth of water required to raise a crop over a unit area of land is usually called delta The hydrologic cycle consists of four key components 1. Precipitation 2. Runoff 3. Storage 4. Evapotranspiration Nearly all spillways fall into one of six types or are made of combinations of these types. These are: 1. overfall (free or gated), 2. side channel, 3. chute or trough, 4. shaft or morning glory, 5. siphon, and 6. emergency. There exist several types of flooding such as: 1. River Flooding 2. Flash Floods: 3. Urban Flooding: 4. Strom Surge or Tidal Flooding 5. Floods Arising due to Failure of Dam Flow of water in a conduit may be classified in various ways to help in the analysis of hydraulic problems. The most basic of these categories are expressed as pairs of opposites, as follows: Laminar flow versus turbulent flow Steady flow versus unsteady flow Uniform flow versus nonuniform flow 83 | P a g e  DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND Cabambangan, Villa de Bacolor 2001, Pampanga, Philippines ARCHITECTURE Tel. No. (6345) 458 0021; Fax (6345) 458 0021 Local 211 URL: http://dhvsu.edu.ph DHVSU Main Campus, Villa de Bacolor, Pampanga E-Mail Address: [email protected]  Benefits of Irrigation With the introduction of irrigation, there have been many advantages, as compared to the total dependence on rainfall. These may be enumerated as under: 1. Increase in crop yield: 2. Protection from famine: 3. Cultivation of superior crops: 4. Elimination of mixed cropping: 5. Economic development 6. Hydro power generation: 7. Domestic and Industrial water supply: MODULE 6 Transportation engineering deals with the efficient transport of people and goods. The content of transportation engineering changes whenever a new mode of transportation becomes viable. Transport engineering applies technological and scientific principles to the planning, functional design, operation and management of facilities for any mode of transport in order to provide for the safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, and environmentally compatible movement of people and goods (10)  Importance of Transportation to the Economy i. Transportation of Exploited Natural Resources: ii. Transport and Place Utility: iii. Time Utility of Transport: iv. Transport Helps Preserve the Quality of Perishable Goods: v. Transport Reduces the Cost of Goods: vi. Transport Accelerates Agricultural Development: vii. Transport and Tourism Promotion: viii. Transport is Vital for Defense and Strategic Needs: 84 | P a g e  DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND Cabambangan, Villa de Bacolor 2001, Pampanga, Philippines ARCHITECTURE Tel. No. (6345) 458 0021; Fax (6345) 458 0021 Local 211 URL: http://dhvsu.edu.ph DHVSU Main Campus, Villa de Bacolor, Pampanga E-Mail Address: [email protected] ix. Transport Facilitates International Trade:. x. Transport Facilitates Administration of Vast Areas:. xi. Transport Facilitates the Specialization and Economies of Scale: xii. Transport Influences Growth of Cities:. The important modes of transport currently available are: 1. Roads and Road Transport 3. Air Transport 2. Railways 4. Water Transport A. TRAFFIC ENGINEERING (11-20) Traffic engineering sometimes is considered as synonymous to transportation engineering but it is usually defined as the narrower field of management of traffic flow. From huge metropolises to small towns, surface traffic must be controlled and modulated for safety and speed. Traffic engineers use projected and monitored traffic patterns and volume to design automated or centrally controlled street signals to modulate traffic. Tools used for traffic control include weight sensors for triggering of left- turn signals and ramp-entry signals for freeway entry during rush hours.  Regulatory Signs: Regulatory signs include right-of-way (stop and yield), speed, movement (directional), parking, pedestrian, and other special signs. A specific code is assigned to each type of sign on the street plans for easy recognition. For example, a stop sign is coded R-l. On a road plan, all R-ls mean stop signs. Regulatory signs are usually rectangular with a black legend on a white background.  Warning Signs: Warning signs alert drivers to any potentially hazardous condition on or adjacent to the roadway provide a signal to reduce speed or drive safely. Warning signs are used to indicate intersections, traffic signals, changes in grade, entrances, and crossings. They are usually diamond shaped with black legend and border on a yellow background.  Guide Signs: Guide signs indicate routes and direct travelers to cities, places of interest, parks, forests, and historical sites. Most guide signs vary in size and usually feature white messages on a green background.  Recreational and Cultural Signs: Signs for general motorist services are white messages on a blue background. Recreational and cultural interest area signs, which are included under guide signs, have a white symbol on a brown background.  Construction and Maintenance Signs: Construction and maintenance operation signs are usually black text on an orange background. Special construction and maintenance signs follow the basic standards of shaped and other details for all highways.  Road Marking 85 | P a g e  DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND Cabambangan, Villa de Bacolor 2001, Pampanga, Philippines ARCHITECTURE Tel. No. (6345) 458 0021; Fax (6345) 458 0021 Local 211 URL: http://dhvsu.edu.ph DHVSU Main Campus, Villa de Bacolor, Pampanga C E-Mail Address: [email protected] Road markings are provided on the road pavement (carriageway markings) or on objects which are part of the road. The markings are painted with hot applied thermoplastic paints. Carriageway markings are of the following categories: i. Centerline of carriageway vi. Pavement edge lines ii. Traffic lane markings vii. Direction arrows iii. Stop lines viii. Word Messages iv. Pedestrian crossings ix. Parking-related markings v. Bus Stops  Parking Parking of vehicles is a problem which has to be addressed by the traffic engineer. The space required for parking is as under:  Cars: 2.5 m x 5 m, and preferably 3 m x 6 m  Two-wheelers: 0.8 m x 2.5 m  Bicycle: 1.4–1.8 sq. m  Commercial Vehicles: 3.75 m x 7.5 m On-street parking can be parallel parking (where space is restricted) or angle parking which is preferred for making parking and unparking maneuvers. Surface off-street parking, multi-storey car parks and underground car parks are common in major cities. Modern multi-storey car parks can be totally mechanically operated by robots.  Street Lighting Street lighting is needed for guiding road users to see the carriageway and the immediate surroundings clearly.  Environmental Effect of Traffic Road traffic causes several environmental effects such as:  Air pollution  Vibration  Severance  Noise  Visual intrusion B. HIGHWAY ENGINEERING (6-9) Highway engineering focuses on the planning, design, construction, and operation and maintenance of highways. Unique to highway engineering is the design and construction of highway pavements and foundations, and the design of highway interchanges The Philippine Highway Network The Philippine highway network refers to the highway system of the Philippines. It is a network of national roads owned and maintained by the Department of Public Works and Highways which are organized into three classifications, under the Philippine Highway Act (Republic Act No. 917) signed by President Elpidio Quirino, depending on their function or purpose they serve within the road network: national primary, national secondary, and national tertiary roads. The national roads connecting major cities are numbered N1 to N82. They are mostly single and dual carriageways linking two or more cities.  Sight Distance 84 | P a g e  DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND Cabambangan, Villa de Bacolor 2001, Pampanga, Philippines ARCHITECTURE Tel. No. (6345) 458 0021; Fax (6345) 458 0021 Local 211 URL: http://dhvsu.edu.ph DHVSU Main Campus, Villa de Bacolor, Pampanga C E-Mail Address: [email protected] The design of a highway with adequate sight ahead of a travelling vehicle results in safe operation. The distance along the road surface at which a driver has visibility of objects, stationary or moving, at a specified height above the carriageway is known as the sight distance. A knowledge of the sight distance requirement is needed in designing vertical curves. It also governs the set-back of buildings, slopes, fences and other obstructions adjacent to a carriageway on a horizontal curve. Sight distance requirement can be considered under two heads: 1. Stopping sight distance, and 2. Overtaking (passing) sight distance  Stopping Sight Distance Stopping sight distance is the distance required by a driver of a vehicle travelling at a given speed to bring his vehicle to a stop after an object on the roadway becomes visible. Because of its importance to safety, all highways must be designed for the minimum stopping sight distance. It is made up of two components: i. The distance travelled during perception and brake reaction time; and ii. The distance travelled during the time the brakes are under application till the vehicle comes to a stop. C. RAILWAY ENGINEERING - 5 Railway engineering focuses on the planning, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of railways. Advances in electronic signal design and communication technology provide new tools in the control of railway traffic for efficiency and safety. Advantages of Rail Transport The advantages of rail transport over other modes can be listed as under: 1. Rail transport is suitable for carriage of bulk commodities over long haul (for example: coal, mineral ore, steel products, cement, petroleum products). 2. Rail transport enjoys an advantage when a full rake load is to be transported from one point to other. 3. Rail transport consumes less energy than road transport, because of the low friction between steel wheels and rail. 4. Rail transport can be operated using energy other than hydrocarbons which are in short supply globally. Rail transport can be operated on electricity. 5. Rail transport is pollution-free. 6. Rail transport is safer than road transport, as accidents are rare. 7. Rail transport is ideally suited for Mass Rapid Transit in cities. 8. Rail transport is economical for long distance passenger traffic.  Advantages of Air Transportation  Speed: The biggest advantage of air transport is its high speed. Speeds of 1000 km per hour are quite common.  Encourages Tourism: International and domestic travel by air has encouraged the tourism industry.  Promotion of Business and Trade: High value goods and perishables are transported quickly by air, giving a boost to business.  Military Use: Air transport is invaluable for the defense of the country. It can transport military personnel and defense equipment quickly.  Relief and Rescue Operations: In times of natural and man-made calamities, air transport can provide relief to effected people and rescue them to safety quickly. 84 | P a g e  DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND Cabambangan, Villa de Bacolor 2001, Pampanga, Philippines ARCHITECTURE Tel. No. (6345) 458 0021; Fax (6345) 458 0021 Local 211 URL: http://dhvsu.edu.ph DHVSU Main Campus, Villa de Bacolor, Pampanga C E-Mail Address: [email protected]  Accessibility to Remote Areas: Some areas, especially in the Philippines are difficult to access by road. Since Philippines is an archipelago, some islands are only accessible via air transport.  Safety: Air transport is very safe compared to road transport and railways. Modern technology and rigid regulations for licensing of planes and pilots make air travel very safe. Water Transportation (1-4) It is a cheap mode, because no expenditure is involved in constructing the paths like roads and railway lines. The only investments needed are in building ships and boats and providing terminal facilities. Water transport is also very energy efficient compared to other modes. Its speed is lower than other modes like road transport, rail transport and air transport. Thus, whereas in earlier days, Indians used to travel to U.K in ships, they now travel only by air. i. A port is a facility where transport of men and materials changes from a land-based mode to a water-based mode. ii. A harbor is a safe haven for ships where they can be moored and sheltered from wind and sea waves. iii. A dock is an artificial enclosure for the reception of ships, loading and unloading of cargo and passengers.  A wet dock is one which has impounded water at a uniform level, independent of external tide action and regulated by lock gates.  A dry dock is a dock to which a ship can be made to enter and from which water can be temporarily pumped away to make it completely dry to enable repairs to be carried out to the ship.  Types of Cargo Handling in Ports The cargo handling in ports are of the following categories: i. Dry bulk (food grains, mineral ores, coal, fertilisers) ii. Liquid bulk (petroleum crude and products, vegetable oil) iii. Containers iv. Parcels v. Liquefied or Compressed Gas vi. General cargo 84 | P a g e DON HONORIO VENTURA STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND Cabambangan, Villa de Bacolor 2001, Pampanga, Philippines ARCHITECTURE Tel. No. (6345) 458 0021; Fax (6345) 458 0021 Local 211 URL: http://dhvsu.edu.ph DHVSU Main Campus, Villa de Bacolor, Pampanga E-Mail Address: [email protected] 62 | P a g e