POG152 Politics and Government I Study Guide PDF

Politics and Government I POG152  © STADIO No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means – electronic, electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical,...

Politics and Government I POG152  © STADIO No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means – electronic, electrostatic, magnetic tape, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise.  Note It is important to note that this study guide must be read in conjunction with the study material contained on the module course site accessed via your Learning Management System (LMS), CANVAS@mySTADIO. Please consult CANVAS@mySTADIO to confirm whether a prescribed textbook must be purchased. Where necessary we will refer to specific pages or chapters. There may also be reference to additional recommended reading material available for free or at a cost. This will be optional reading intended to enhance your understanding of the material. The content of the STADIO study guides and teaching documents are not intended to be sold or used for commercial purposes. Such content is, in essence, part of tuition and constitutes an integral part of the learning experience, regardless of the mode. Links to websites and videos were active and functioning at the time of publication. We apologise in advance if there are instances where the owners of the sites or videos have terminated them. Please contact us in such cases. A Glossary of terms may be provided at the end of this study guide. Any reference to gender includes all genders. Similarly, singular may refer to plural and vice versa. It is your responsibility to regularly access CANVAS@mySTADIO to make sure that you always refer to the latest and most updated material for this module. We encourage students to make use of the available resources on the STADIO Online Library available on CANVAS@mySTADIO.  Prescribed Reading The prescribed textbook for Politics and Government I (POG152) is: Heywood, A. 2019. Politics. 5th ed. London: Red Globe Press. ISBN 978-1- 352-00545-5 [paperback]. The following textbook has been summarised in this Study Guide. You may purchase this textbook as an optional extra reading source: De Jager, N. (ed.), Kotze, J.S., Welsh, D., Mangcu, X., Graham, V., Gumede, V. & Neethling, T. 2020. South African politics: an introduction. 2nd ed. Cape Town: Oxford University Press, Southern Africa. ISBN 978-01-9073449-7.  Table of contents Heading Page number Contents WELCOME 1 MODULE PURPOSE AND OUTCOMES 3 TOPIC 1 WHAT IS POLITICS? 4 Module Outcomes for Topic 1 4 1.1 Introduction 4 1.2 Rival Concepts of Politics 5 1.3 Approaches to the Study of Politics 7 1.4 Concepts, Models and Theories of Political Science 8 Summary 9 Self-Assessment Questions 10 TOPIC 2 CLASSIFYING STATES AND REGIME 11 Module Outcomes for Topic 2 11 2.1 Introduction 11 2.2 Key Features of the State 12 2.3 Tival Theories of the State and the Different Roles of the State 12 2.4 Regime Classification 15 2.5 Classical Typologies: Aristotle’s ClassifIcation 15 2.6 The Three Worlds’ Typology 16 2.7 Contemporary Regime Types 17 Summary 18 Self-Assessment Questions 19 TOPIC 3 POLITICAL IDEOLOGIES 20 Module Outcomes for Topic 3 20 3.1 Introduction 20 3.2 Classical Ideologies 21 Summary 22 Self-Assessment Questions 22 TOPIC 4 DEMOCRACY 23 Module Outcomes for Topic 4 23 4.1 Introduction 23 4.2 Legitimising Power 24 4.3 Understanding the Meaning and Nature of Democracy 24 4.4 Models of Democracy 25 Summary 27 Self-Assessment Questions 27 TOPIC 5 THE NATION-STATE AND NATIONALISM 28 Module Outcomes for Topic 5 28 5.1 Introduction 28 5.2 Different Types of Nationalism 29 5.3 The Future of Nationalism and the Nation-State 30 Summary 30 Self-Assessment Questions 31 TOPIC 6 POLITICAL DYNAMICS: REPRESENTATION AND ELECTIONS 32 Module Outcomes for Topic 6 32 6.1 Introduction 32 6.2 Theories of Representation 33 6.3 Functions of Elections 33 6.4 Electoral Systems 33 6.5 Voting Behaviour 34 Summary 34 Self-Assessment Questions 35 TOPIC 7 POLITICAL PARTIES AND PARTY SYSTEMS 36 Module Outcomes for Topic 7 36 7.1 Introduction 36 7.2 Types of Political Parties 37 7.3 Functions of Political Parties 37 7.4 Party Systems 37 7.5 Is Party Politics in a Crisis? 38 Summary 38 Self-Assessment Questions 39 TOPIC 8 DEMOCRATIC DEVELOPMENT AND THE LEGACY OF APARTHEID IN SOUTH AFRICA 40 Module Outcomes for Topic 8 40 8.1 Introduction 40 8.2 Procedural and Substantive Democracy 41 8.3 Racial Stratification, Imperialism, Segregation and Apartheid 42 8.4 Apartheid and its Legacies 43 Summary 44 Self-Assessment Questions 44 TOPIC 9 SOUTH AFRICA: LIBERATION HISTORY 45 Module Outcomes for Topic 9 45 9.1 Introduction 45 9.2 African Nationalism 46 9.3 The Armed Struggle and Non-Racialism 47 Summary 48 Self-Assessment Questions 48 TOPIC 10 SA: THE NEGOTIATED TRANSITION 49 Module Outcomes for Topic 10 49 10.1 Introduction 49 10.2 The Pillars of Struggle 50 10.3 The Ripe Moment: 1980S and 1990S 50 Summary 52 Self-Assessment Questions 53 TOPIC 11 SA: THE 1996 CONSTITUTION 54 Module Outcomes for Topic 11 54 11.1 Introduction 54 11.2 The Features of the 1996 Constitution 55 11.3 The Electoral System, Parliament, and the President 56 Summary 57 Self-Assessment Questions 58 TOPIC 12 SOUTH AFRICA: DEMOCRACY IN ACTION 59 Module Outcomes for Topic 12 59 12.1 Introduction 59 12.2 Functions of a Political Party in a Democracy 60 12.3 Political Party Funding in South Africa 61 12.4 South Africa’s Dominant Party System 62 12.5 South Africa’s Regional, Continental, and Global Position 64 12.6 South Africa After Democracy 65 Summary 66 Self-Assessment Questions 67 GLOSSARY OF TERMS 68 REFERENCES 69 Answers to Self-Assessment Questions 70 Topic 1 Self-assessment answers 70 Topic 2 Self-assessment answers 70 Topic 3 Self-assessment answers 71 Topic 4 Self-assessment answers 72 Topic 5 Self-assessment answers 73 Topic 6 Self-assessment answers 73 Topic 7 Self-assessment answers 74 Topic 8 Self-assessment answers 75 Topic 9 Self-assessment answers 75 Topic 10 Self-assessment answers 76 Topic 11 Self-assessment answers 77 Topic 12 Self-assessment answers 78  Welcome Welcome to POLITICS AND GOVERNMENT I (POG152). This study guide contains the syllabus outline and different topics that you need to study and master for you to meet the requirements of this module and develop the necessary competence to be able to apply the principles in a work environment. The module Politics and Government is a compulsory and major module of the degree: Bachelor of Law. In the first year of study, the focus is on defining the scientific field of Politics and Government by way of its key concepts and some basic aspects, as well as an application of some of the theories towards the South African democracy. Emphasis is on elements of the nation-state with its structures and political processes. In the second year, Politics and Government 2A will focus on comparative politics by looking at specific other nation states too. In Politics and Government 2B (second semester) you will learn more about international politics, globalisation, as well as political ideologies. In your third year of study, Politics and Government 3A will focus on why we call politics science and how research has produced the knowledge on Politics and Government that we study in textbooks. For the second semester in the third year in Politics and Government, you have a choice between Politics and Government 3B, where more aspects of political dynamics will be discussed (processes or political behaviour such as protests, elections, political parties, interest groups, political alliances, etc.), or Politics and Government 3C, looking at the global political economy. You might ask why Politics and Government is a compulsory major module for a degree in Law. One way of explaining it is to point out that the political system with its institutions, such as legislatures (for example South Africa’s Parliament or the United States of America’s Congress), make the laws that the legal system can use. The legal system has many sources, but national and international law are a major part of it. We trust that you will enjoy the exciting issues and challenges you will be facing. In a sense politics and governance are everywhere in life, from government structures to the sports club or church. © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG 152 1 As a prominent political scientist has indicated, politics is the authoritative allocation of values to a particular society (Easton, 1965:21). Those decisions on values or choices are normally made through policies of which laws are examples in a written form. In the public sector, governments are supposed to help formulate those policies and execute them. Some laws are more specifically aimed at the private sector and some of those aspects (Law of Delict, Law of Property, etc.) you will also study for this degree. We look forward to accompanying you on this meaningful and positive learning journey for the module and its relevance to your degree. © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG 152 2  Module Purpose and Outcomes This module aims to introduce students to the study of politics. It is based on three essential components that are identified as the introductory foundation for understanding politics. This will include defining the nature of the state in politics, the conceptualisation of how power can and should be used, and examining the way power can be used to achieve particular ends. Secondly, the module will assess institutions through the manner in which political actions are conducted such as the separation of powers between the three spheres of government. The primary focus will be on democratic institutions as described in formal constitutional rules, but also in the context of institutions in states where democracy is not formally constituted. Lastly, political processes and the role of political actors will be assessed in gauging the factors that influence state-society relations, democratic consolidation, and the dynamics of electoral politics, constitutional values and rules. The African and South African political landscape will serve as the contextual analytical framework. On successful completion of this module, the student will be able to: 1. Demonstrate an understanding of the core concepts in the field of Politics. 2. Recognise the institutions of different regime types and forms of state. 3. Follow the arguments that are foundational to modern political ideologies. 4. Identify the political processes of democracies. 5. Present a concise overview of South Africa’s transition from the apartheid regime to a democratic regime. 6. Recognise the defining features of South Africa’s democratic constitution. 7. Assess the extent to which South Africa’s democracy is consolidating or not. 8. Identify the major policy challenges facing South Africa’s democracy. © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG 152 3  Topic 1 What is Politics? MODULE OUTCOMES FOR TOPIC 1 This topic relates to Module Outcome 1: Demonstrate an understanding of the core concepts in the field of politics. In this topic, you will gain knowledge on the following: The concept of politics. Approaches to the study of politics. Reasons as to whether the study of politics can be scientific. Key concepts, theories and models of political science. Reading Before continuing with this topic, please read the following: Heywood, A. (2019:1–22) (Chapter 1) Please be advised that the content provided in the study guide is merely a broad overview of the work. You need to use Heywood (2019) to study for the examination and to answer the activity and self-assessment questions. 1.1 INTRODUCTION “Man is by nature a political animal” (Aristotle in Heywood, 2019:1). Politics is exciting because people disagree about numerous things such as how they should live, who should get what, and how should power and resources be distrusted. For this reason, Aristotle regarded politics as the “master science”, an activity through which people attempt to improve their lives and create the “Good Society”. Politics is always a social activity, a dialogue and never a monologue (Heywood, 2019). © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 4 It is problematic to clarify the meaning of politics due to intellectual and ideological disagreements in the study of this subject. Politics is also a ‘loaded’ term as people have preconceptions about politics, creating the assumption that students and teachers of politics are in some way biased, and as a result, it would be difficult to approach the subject impartially. Furthermore, politics is often seen as a ‘dirty’ word, conjuring up images of trouble, disruption, violence, deceit, manipulation, and lies. In addition, even respected scholars cannot agree on how to define politics. Politics is thus defined in various ways such as the exercise of power, the making of collective decisions, the allocation of scarce resources, and the practice of deception and manipulation to name a few. In an attempt to encompass all of these competing definitions, politics is defined “as the activity through which people make, preserve and amend the general rules under which they live” (Heywood, 2019:2). 1.2 RIVAL CONCEPTS OF POLITICS When dealing with rival concepts of politics, one can distinguish between two broad approaches. Firstly, politics is associated with an arena or location where behaviour becomes ‘political’ because of where it takes place. Secondly, politics can be viewed as a process where ‘political’ behaviour exhibits distinctive characteristics and can thus take place in any social context (Heywood, 2019). These two broad approaches are illustrated in Figure 1.1 below. Table 1: Approaches to defining politics (Heywood, 2019:3) Politics as an arena Politics as a process Definitions of politics The art of government Compromise and Public affairs consensus Power and the distribution of resources Approaches to the study Behaviouralism Feminism of politics Rational-choice theory Marxism Institutionalism Post-positivist approaches Politics as the art of government is encapsulated by Chancellor Bismarck's assertion that "Politics is not a science but an art" (Heywood, 2019:3). This definition pertains to the exertion of control in society through the formulation and enforcement of collective decisions. This classical understanding of politics traces its origins back to Ancient Greece, where the term 'politics' is derived from the word polis, which refers to a 'city-state.' In ancient Greece, society consisted of numerous independent city-states, each with its unique system of governance. © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 5 The term 'polis' conveyed the idea of the highest or most desirable form of social organisation. Among these city-states, Athens stands as the renowned cradle of democratic government. In its contemporary interpretation, politics revolves around matters of the state. This conventional perspective delves into the individuals and mechanisms of government, focusing on the study of government structures and the exercise of authority. This viewpoint aligns with David Easton's definition, as presented in 1979 and 1981, which characterises politics as the "authoritative allocation of values" (Heywood, 2019: 4). However, this perspective has its limitations, as it primarily centers on the bureaucratic apparatus of government, such as cabinets, legislatures, and government agencies, and is predominantly the domain of a select group, including politicians, civil servants, and lobbyists. The concept of politics as public affairs extends beyond the narrow confines of government, encompassing the broader realm of 'public life' or 'public affairs.' This expanded perspective of politics finds its roots in the teachings of Aristotle, who contended that "man is by nature a political animal." This implies that human beings can only achieve the 'good life' in a political community. Politics, from this standpoint, takes on an ethical dimension, concerned with the establishment of a 'just society.' However, the question is how can one distinguish between public life and private life? Traditionally, this distinction hinges on the demarcation between the state and civil society. State institutions, including the government apparatus, courts, police, the military, and the social security system, are regarded as 'public' since they are responsible for structuring communal life and are funded by the public through taxation. In contrast, civil society encompasses families, private businesses, trade unions, clubs, and community groups. These entities are established and financed by individual citizens to serve their own interests rather than those of the broader society. Nonetheless, this perspective is limiting in that it asserts that politics should not intrude into 'personal' matters and institutions. Feminist scholars have challenged this viewpoint, asserting that gender inequality persists due to the sexual division of labour. Historically, the public sphere, encompassing politics, work, art, and literature, has been predominantly the domain of men, while women have been confined to a private existence, centred around family and domestic responsibilities. By relegating politics solely to the public sphere, the role of women and issues related to gender equality are marginalised or considered unimportant. Radical feminists argue that this perspective neglects the analysis of the mechanisms through which male dominance and female subordination are perpetuated (Heywood, 2019). ‘Politics as compromise and consensus’ pertains to the manner in which decisions are reached. From this perspective, politics is regarded as a means to address © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 6 conflicts by way of compromise, reconciliation, and negotiation, rather than relying on force and sheer authority. Bernard Crick is an advocate of this approach, saying that politics is the process through which conflicting interests within a specific governing body are reconciled by granting them a share of authority (Crick cited in Heywood, 2019). The essence of politics, therefore, lies in the equitable distribution of power. This understanding of politics possesses a positive nature as it presents a preferable alternative to violence and brutality. Politics can serve as a civilising and civilised influence. However, critics of this viewpoint argue that it exhibits a bias towards the style of politics prevalent in Western pluralist democracies, characterised by electoral choices and party competition. It thus offers limited insights into political systems such as one- party states or military regimes (Heywood, 2019). The concept of politics as power represents the broadest and most radical definition. It asserts that politics operates in every aspect of human existence, across all types of social structures. According to Adrian Leftwich, politics is intrinsic to all collective social activities, both formal and informal, whether public or private, within every human community, institution, and society (Leftwich cited in Heywood, 2019). Politics as power implies the capacity to achieve a desired outcome by any means, as exemplified in Harold Lasswell's work, "Politics: Who Gets What, When, How" (1936). Politics revolves around diversity and conflict, but its fundamental element is the presence of scarcity. While human needs and desires are limitless, the resources available to fulfill them are invariably limited. Consequently, politics is an ongoing competition for these scarce resources, with power serving as the vehicle for this contest. Advocates of this perspective include feminists and Marxists, both of whom contend that politics involves processes of oppression and subjugation. Radical feminists argue that society is patriarchal, as women are systematically subjected to male dominance. Marxists, on the other hand, claim that politics in a capitalist society is marked by the exploitation of the working class by the bourgeoisie. These viewpoints often depict politics in largely negative terms (Heywood, 2019). 1.3 APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF POLITICS The field of politics, as an academic discipline, encompasses a variety of theoretical approaches and numerous schools of analysis for its study. Its philosophical tradition traces back to Ancient Greece. It is mostly concerned with normative questions, which pertain to ethical and prescriptive matters, focusing on what 'should' and 'ought' to be achieved, as opposed to objective inquiries that explore what 'is'—those aspects external to the observer, devoid of emotions, values, or bias. In contrast, the empirical tradition aims to provide an © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 7 impartial and unbiased account of political realities. This approach is descriptive, seeking to analyse and explain, while the normative approach is prescriptive, involving judgments and recommendations. The rise of behaviouralism in the 1950s and 1960s gained popularity as it supplied the field of politics with objective and quantifiable data for testing hypotheses. It advocated for adopting the methodologies of the natural sciences, leading to studies in areas suitable for quantitative research, such as voting behaviour, legislative conduct, and the actions of local politicians and lobbyists (Heywood, 2019). Critics argue that behaviouralism considerably restricts the scope of political analysis, limiting it to what is directly observable. Furthermore, concepts like 'liberty,' 'equality,' 'justice,' and 'rights' are often discarded as they are considered unverifiable empirically. A more contemporary theoretical approach is 'formal political theory' or rational-choice theory, which offers an analytical tool for understanding the actions of voters, lobbyists, and politicians. This approach has also been applied in the form of game theory, which explores issues of conflict and cooperation by elucidating how one actor's choice of strategy affects the optimal choices of others and vice versa, as illustrated in the 'prisoner's dilemma' game theory. However, this approach has faced criticism for overemphasising human rationality and insufficiently considering social and historical factors. Additional approaches include 'new institutionalism' and various critical approaches, which are discussed in Heywood (2019:15–17). For the two contrasting viewpoints on whether scholars of politics should strive for objectivity and political neutrality, refer to Heywood (2019:19). 1.4 CONCEPTS, MODELS AND THEORIES OF POLITICAL SCIENCE Concepts, models, and theories serve as tools of political analysis and are elaborated on in Heywood (2019:17–21). A concept is a general idea about something, often conveyed by a single word or a brief phrase. In contrast, models and theories encompass a broader spectrum of ideas rather than a single idea. A model is a representation of something, typically on a smaller scale, such as a toy airplane, to closely resemble the original object. A theory, on the other hand, is a methodical explanation of empirical data, typically presented as reliable knowledge. It is worth noting that virtually all conceptual tools, theories, and models harbour concealed values or implicit assumptions (Heywood, 2019). Below is a diagrammatical representation of the various levels of conceptual analysis. © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 8 Table 2: Levels of conceptual analysis (Heywood, 2019:21) LEVELS OF CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS Concepts Examples: power, social class, rights, law. Models (Micro theories) Examples: systems analysis, public choice, and game theory. Macro theories Examples: pluralism, elitism, functionalism. Ideological traditions Examples: liberalism, Marxism, and feminism. Summary The study of politics is marked by diverse perspectives and definitions, making it challenging to define precisely. It is considered the "master science" by Aristotle, as it deals with how people live, who gets what, and the distribution of power and resources in their attempt to create a "Good Society." Politics is often seen as a loaded term associated with bias, trouble, disruption, violence, deceit, and lies. It can be defined in various ways, including as the exercise of power, the making of collective decisions, the allocation of resources, or the practice of deception and manipulation. A broad definition suggests politics is "the activity through which people make, preserve, and amend the general rules under which they live." Two contrasting approaches to defining politics are presented. One views politics as an arena where behaviour becomes political due to its location, while the other sees politics as a process that can occur in any social context. Politics can be defined in multiple ways, including as the art of government, public affairs, compromise, consensus, or the exercise of power. The field of political science encompasses various theoretical approaches and schools of analysis. The empirical tradition aims to provide a descriptive and objective account of political realities, while the normative tradition focuses on ethical and prescriptive matters. Behaviouralism, rational-choice theory, and game theory are among these approaches. Formal political theory and new institutionalism offer analytical tools, while critical approaches challenge dominant narratives. Concepts, models, and theories are essential tools of political analysis, each with its own level of abstraction, from basic concepts to ideological traditions. © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 9  Activity 1 The activity is for Topic 1. In this course, all activities are meant to help you comprehend the section or specific topic on your own. There are 12 topics in this semester's course, and if you do the activities on your own, at about one topic per week, it will assist you greatly towards grasping and remembering a substantial quantity of knowledge for the exam. 1. Write one paragraph on why the view of politics as the “art of government” is a very restrictive view. 2. List the advantages and disadvantages of the various approaches to the study of politics. 3. Discuss with a friend (or in a class discussion): which concept of politics is most prevalent in southern Africa. Give reasons for your answer. 4. Summarise the different conceptions of politics in table format. Self-Assessment Questions 1.1 Provide an overview of politics as the art of government, as public affairs and as power. 1.2 What are some key approaches to the study of politics mentioned in Heywood (2019), and how do they differ in their methodologies and focus? © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 10  Topic 2 Classifying States and Regime MODULE OUTCOMES FOR TOPIC 2 This topic relates to Module Outcome 2: Identify the institutions of different regime types and forms of state. In this topic, you will gain knowledge on the following: Traditional systems of classification. Classical typologies. Contemporary regimes. Reading Before continuing with this topic, please read the following: Heywood, A. (2019:56–69; 109–129) (Chapters 3 and 5) Please be advised that the content provided in the study guide is merely a broad overview of the work. You need to use Heywood (2019) to study for the examination and to answer the activity and self-assessment questions. 2.1 INTRODUCTION The state is a historical entity that originated in Europe during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as a system of centralised governance. The Peace of Westphalia in 1648 introduced the concept of territorial sovereignty and formalised the contemporary understanding of statehood by designating the state as the central actor in both domestic and international matters (Heywood, 2019). © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 11 2.2 KEY FEATURES OF THE STATE The state has six key features as explained in Heywood (2019:58–59): The state is sovereign: it exercises absolute and unrestricted power and stands above all other associations and groups in a society. State institutions are recognisably ‘public’ in contrast to the ‘private’ institutions of civil society. Public bodies are responsible for making and enforcing collective decisions, while private bodies (families, private businesses and trade unions) exist to satisfy individual interests. The state is an exercise in legitimation: the decisions of the state are usually accepted as binding on members of society as they are made in the public interest. The state is an instrument of domination: state authority is backed up by coercion, the state has the capacity to ensure that its laws are obeyed and that transgressors are punished. The state is a territorial association: the jurisdiction of the state is geographically defined, and it encompasses all those who live within the state’s borders. The state has the capacity to enter into relations with other states. It is formally recognised by other states and the United Nations. 2.3 TIVAL THEORIES OF THE STATE AND THE DIFFERENT ROLES OF THE STATE What is the nature of state power and whose interests does the state represent? There are various rival theories of the state, each of which offers a different account of its origins, development and impact on society. The four contrasting theories of the state are the pluralist state, the capitalist state, the leviathan state, and the patriarchal state (Heywood, 2019). The pluralist theory of the state, rooted in liberalism, posits that the state functions as an 'umpire' or 'referee' within society. This perspective finds its origins in the social-contract theories of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. They contended that the state emerged through a voluntary agreement, a social contract, among individuals who recognised that only the establishment of a sovereign power could shield them from the insecurity, disorder, and brutality of the state of nature. Without a state, individuals would subject one another to © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 12 abuse, exploitation, and enslavement. However, with the presence of the state, order and civilised coexistence are assured, and individual liberty is safeguarded. In liberal theory, the state is thus perceived as a neutral mediator among competing groups and individuals within society; it acts as an umpire or referee, safeguarding citizens from encroachments by fellow citizens. The state maintains its neutrality as it acts in the interests of all citizens and represents the common good or public interest (Heywood, 2019). Marxists view the capitalist state as a tool for enforcing class oppression, as it arises from and mirrors the class system. According to Marx, the state is a component of the 'superstructure' shaped by the economic 'base,' predominantly represented by the bourgeoisie, which can be considered the fundamental underpinning of societal structures. Consequently, understanding the state necessitates an examination of the context of imbalanced class power, originating in and mirroring the capitalist society, and serving as an instrument of oppression wielded by the dominant class (Heywood, 2019). The leviathan state, often depicted as a self-serving monster driven by expansion and aggrandisement, is associated with the New Right, representing a radical form of individualism. The New Right strongly opposes state intervention in both economic and social realms, viewing the state as an intrusive 'nanny' excessively involved in every facet of human existence. The state is regarded as an autonomous entity pursuing its own interests. Bureaucratic self-interest supports the concept of 'big' government and state intervention because it leads to an expansion of the bureaucracy itself, ensuring job security, improved compensation, promotion prospects, and an elevation of the status of public officials (Heywood, 2019). In terms of the patriarchal state, radical feminists contend that state power mirrors a deeper structure of oppression rooted in patriarchy. They view the state as an instrument employed by men to safeguard their own interests and maintain the structures of patriarchy (Heywood, 2019). There is also a significant disagreement about the exact role of the state and, therefore, the proper balance between the state and civil society. In this regard, the following state forms have been developed: minimal states; developmental states; social-democratic states; collectivised states; totalitarian states, and religious states (Heywood, 2019). The minimal state, an aspiration of classical liberals rooted in social-contract theory, envisions a society where individuals enjoy the utmost extent of freedom. In this vision, the state serves as a protective body, providing a framework for © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 13 peace and social order within which citizens can pursue their lives as they see fit. John Locke's perspective likens the state to a nightwatchman, called upon only when orderly existence is threatened. The state assumes three fundamental roles: maintaining domestic order, enforcing contracts and voluntary agreements among private citizens, and ensuring protection against external threats (Heywood, 2019). A developmental state actively intervenes in economic life intending to foster industrial growth and economic development. In states such as Austria and Germany, economic development has been realised through the establishment of a 'partnership state,' prioritising a strong bond between the state and major economic interests, including big business and organised labour. Economic globalisation has given rise to the emergence of 'competition states,' notably observed in the tiger economies of East Asia. These competition states acknowledge the necessity of strengthening education and training as the primary factors ensuring economic success within intensifying transnational competition (Heywood, 2019). While developmental states engage in interventionism to stimulate economic progress, social-democratic states intervene with the broader aim of initiating social restructuring based on the principles of fairness, equality, and social justice. This approach seeks to rectify the imbalances and injustices of a market economy, concentrating on the equitable distribution of wealth. Its overarching goals include poverty alleviation and the reduction of social inequality. The twin features of a social-democratic state are Keynesianism, which manages capitalism to foster growth and ensure full employment, and social welfare to enhance the well-being of citizens (Heywood, 2019). Collectivised states exercise full control over the entirety of economic life. Instances of such states were evident in orthodox communist nations such as the USSR and across Eastern Europe. In these systems, private enterprise was abolished, and replaced by centrally planned economies overseen by the highest organs of the communist party (Heywood, 2019). The most radical and comprehensive form of interventionism is observed in totalitarian states. In these states, the control extends not only to the economy but also to education, culture, religion, and family life, all directly under state control. Classic examples of totalitarian states include Nazi Germany and Stalin's USSR, although contemporary regimes such as North Korea exhibit similar characteristics. The foundation of these regimes rests upon practices such as surveillance, terrorist policing, and ideological manipulation and control. © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 14 Essentially, totalitarian states eradicate civil society and abolish the 'private' sphere of life entirely (Heywood, 2019). The period since the 1980s has seen the rise of the religious state driven by religious fundamentalism to reject the public/private divide and to view religion as the basis of politics. Fundamentalist movements seize control of the state and use it as an instrument of moral and spiritual regeneration. Examples are the ‘Islamisation’ introduced in Pakistan after 1978, and the establishment of an Islamic state in Iran as a result of the 1979 revolution (Heywood, 2019). 2.4 REGIME CLASSIFICATION Before delving into various systems of classification, it is essential to establish what is being classified and why it is important to classify. To begin, we must distinguish between government, political systems, and regimes. Government refers to the institutional processes through which collective, typically binding, decisions are made. A political system or regime is a more comprehensive concept that encompasses the mechanisms of government, state institutions, and the structures and processes through which they interact with the broader society. A regime is a system of rules that endures over time, even as individual governments may change. Governments can be altered through elections, whereas regimes can only be changed through military intervention or internal revolutionary upheaval (Heywood, 2019). There are two reasons for classification. Firstly, classification helps us to understand politics and government, and understanding of politics is largely acquired through comparison. Secondly, classification facilitates evaluation in order to ‘improve’ government. Systems of classification do, however, have drawbacks such as the danger of simplification, ethnocentrism, and the fact that classification is necessarily state-bound (Heywood, 2019). 2.5 CLASSICAL TYPOLOGIES: ARISTOTLE’S CLASSIFICATION The most classical system of classification was devised by Aristotle in the fourth century BCE, based on his analysis of 158 Greek city-states. Government could be categorised based on two questions: who rules and who benefits from the rule. Government could be placed in the hands of a single individual, a small group, or the many (Heywood, 2019). © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 15 According to Aristotle, tyranny, oligarchy, and democracy were all corrupted or perverted forms of governance in which a single person, a small group, and the masses ruled in their own interests to the detriment of others. In contrast, monarchy, aristocracy, and polity were favoured because in these forms, the individual, small group, and the masses governed in the interests of all. Tyranny was considered the most undesirable form, as it reduced citizens to the status of slaves, while monarchies and aristocracies were seen as impractical. Aristotle regarded a polity as the most workable option, but he cautioned against popular rule due to the risk that the masses might resent the wealth of the few and be easily influenced by a demagogue. Therefore, he advocated for a mixed constitution that combined elements of both democracy and aristocracy, placing governance in the hands of the 'middle class' (Heywood, 2019). 2.6 THE THREE WORLDS’ TYPOLOGY In the twentieth century, the ‘three worlds’ typology, shaped by the antagonisms of the Cold War, became popular. According to this approach, the political world could be divided into three distinct blocs: a capitalist first world, a communist second world and a developing third world. This classification had economic, ideological, and strategic dimensions. Industrialised Western regimes were ‘first’ in economic terms as their populations enjoyed the highest levels of mass affluence. Communist regimes were ‘second’ as they were largely industrialised and capable of satisfying the population’s basic material needs. The less- developed countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America were ‘third’ as they were economically dependent and suffered from widespread poverty. The first and second worlds were further divided by fierce ideological rivalry. The first world was committed to capitalist principles such as private enterprise and free market; the second world adhered to communist values such as social equality and central planning. These ideological differences also had political manifestations. First-world regimes practised liberal-democratic politics based on competitive elections while second-world regimes were one-party states, dominated by ‘ruling’ communist parties. Third-world regimes were typically authoritarian and governed by traditional monarchs, dictators or the military. This classification was underpinned by a bipolar world where the USA-dominated West was in conflict with a USSR-dominated East. This order was sustained by the two rival military camps, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and the Warsaw Pact. The ‘non-aligned’ third world was often the battleground on which this geopolitical struggle was conducted which ensured its continued political and economic subordination (Heywood, 2019). © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 16 The ’three worlds’ typology, however, became unsustainable. New patterns of economic development brought material affluence to parts of the third world such as the oil-rich states of the Middle East and the newly industrialised states of East Asia, Southeast Asia and, to some extent, Latin America. Poverty became even more entrenched in parts of sub-Saharan Africa, constituting a kind of “fourth” world. Furthermore, due to the advance of democratisation in the 1980s and 1990s, third-world countries were no longer uniformly authoritarian. The term “third world” was also widely resented as being demeaning as it implied entrenched disadvantage. Finally, the collapse of the orthodox communist regimes from 1989 to 1991 was the final blow to the three-worlds model. Francis Fukuyama proclaimed that this development amounted to the ‘end of history’ meaning that the ideological debate has ended with the worldwide triumph of Western liberal democracy (Heywood, 2019). 2.7 CONTEMPORARY REGIME TYPES There are several difficulties in establishing a new system of classification (refer to Heywood, 2019:114–115) such as the lack of consensus about the criteria for such a system. Nevertheless, Heywood (2019) identifies five regime types in the modern world: Western liberal democracies; Illiberal democracies; East Asian regimes; Islamic regimes and military regimes. Western liberal democracies have a combination of two features. Firstly, there is a high tolerance of opposition to check the arbitrary inclinations of government, and secondly, the opportunities for participating in politics are sufficiently widespread to guarantee a reliable level of popular responsiveness These regimes are found in North America, Western Europe, and Australasia. These regimes are also referred to as polyarchical liberal democracies, an acknowledgment that these regimes do, indeed, fall short of the overall goal of democracy (Heywood, 2019). Illiberal democracies are hybrid regimes as they attempt to blend democracy with authoritarianism. These are democratically elected regimes that routinely ignore constitutional limits on their power and deprive citizens of basic rights and freedoms. These regimes can be found in Venezuela, Hungary, Singapore, Honduras, and Bangladesh (Heywood, 2019). East Asian regimes are firstly more orientated around economic goals than around political ones. Their prime priority is to boost growth and deliver prosperity as opposed to the enlargement of individual freedom. Secondly, there is broad support for a ‘strong’ government and the state is seen as a ‘father © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 17 figure’ guiding the decisions of private and public bodies. Thirdly, leaders are respected due to the Confucian emphasis on loyalty, discipline, and duty. These features are typically evident in the ‘tiger’ economies of East and Southeast Asia but also in China since the late 1970s (Heywood, 2019:125). In Islamic regimes such as Iran, Islam is not simply a religion but a complete way of life-defining correct moral, political and economic behaviour for individuals and nations. Political Islam, therefore, aims at the construction of a theocracy in which political and other affairs are structured according to ‘higher’ religious principles. However, political Islam has assumed contrasting forms, ranging from fundamentalist to pluralist extremes. Muslims often object to the classification of any Islamic regime as ‘fundamentalist’ because this perpetuates long-established Western prejudices against a ‘repressive’ East (Heywood, 2019). Military regimes belong to a broader category of dictatorship and are typically found in Latin America, the Middle East, Africa, and Southeast Asia. The key characteristic of a military regime is that prominent positions in government are occupied based on the person’s position within the military chain of command. Normal political and constitutional arrangements are usually suspended and institutions through which opposition can be expressed are either weakened or abolished (Heywood, 2019:127). Summary The state possesses six key features, including sovereignty, the distinction between public and private institutions, the exercise of legitimation, the use of coercion as an instrument of domination, territorial jurisdiction, and the capacity to engage with other states. These features define the state's authority and functions within a society. Various rival theories of the state aim to explain its nature and whose interests it represents. These theories include pluralism, which views the state as a neutral mediator; Marxism, which sees the state as enforcing class oppression; the leviathan state, which suggests that the state acts in its own interests and as a controlling entity; and the patriarchal state, as argued by radical feminists, which asserts that the state maintains structures of male dominance. There are also differing views on the role of the state, resulting in classifications such as the minimal state, developmental state, social-democratic state, collectivised state, © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 18 totalitarian state, and religious state, each with its unique approach to governance. Classification in political science serves to understand and evaluate governments and political systems. Classical typologies, such as Aristotle's classification of governance forms based on who rules and who benefits from the rule, and the 'three worlds' typology from the Cold War era, categorised states into first, second, and third worlds, based on economic, ideological, and strategic dimensions. Contemporary regime types encompass Western liberal democracies, illiberal democracies, East Asian regimes, Islamic regimes, and military regimes. Activity 2 1. Write a paragraph on why Aristotle preferred a monarchy, aristocracy, and polity above rule by an individual, a small group and the masses. 2. Write an essay of one page on the Three Worlds’ Typology and indicate why this typology is not deemed to be appropriate. 3. Discuss with a friend (or in a class discussion) what would be the most appropriate classification for South Africa and provide reasons for your answer. 4. Define the concept of polyarchy in two to three sentences. 5. Define the term authoritarianism. 6. List three reasons why the classification of some regimes as Islamic regimes are problematic. 7. Write a short paragraph to indicate why it is important that we classify political regimes. Self-Assessment Questions 2.1 Provide an overview of the key distinguishing features of polyarchical liberal democracies, illiberal democracies, and East Asian regimes. © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 19  Topic 3 Political Ideologies MODULE OUTCOMES FOR TOPIC 3 This topic relates to Module Outcome 3: Take part in arguments that are foundational to modern political ideologies. In this topic, you will gain knowledge on the following: The concept of political ideology Major aspects of liberalism. Major aspects of conservatism. Major aspects of socialism. Major aspects of nationalism. Other ideological perspectives. The future of political ideology. Reading Before continuing with this topic, please read the following: Heywood, A. (2019:26–55) (Chapter 2) Please be advised that the content provided in the study guide is merely a broad overview of the work. You need to use Heywood (2019) to study for the examination and to answer the activity and self-assessment questions. 3.1 INTRODUCTION An ideology can be defined as a coherent set of ideas that provides a basis for organised political action, whether this is “intended to preserve, modify or overthrow the existing system of power relationships” (Heywood, 2019:27). There are three classical or core ideologies namely liberalism, conservatism and socialism. In addition, other ideological traditions such as fascism, feminism, © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 20 green ideology and populism have developed either out of or in opposition to these core ideologies. 3.2 CLASSICAL IDEOLOGIES Liberalism consists of several key ideas such as individualism, freedom, reason, equality, toleration, consent, and constitutionalism. The central feature of classical liberalism is a commitment to an extreme form of individualism while modern liberalism is characterised by a more sympathetic attitude towards state intervention (refer to Heywood, 2019: 31–32 for an in-depth discussion). Conservatism arose as a reaction against the growing pace of economic and social change and in trying to resist the pressures unleashed by the growth of liberalism, socialism and nationalism, conservatism stood in defence of an increasingly embattled traditional social order. Conservatism has several strands such as paternalistic conservatism, the New Right and neoconservatism (refer to Heywood, 2019: 33–37 for an in-depth discussion). Socialism developed as a reaction against the emergence of industrial capitalism and in its earliest form the goal was to abolish a capitalist economy based on market exchange and replace it with common ownership. The most influential representative of this brand of socialism was Karl Marx. Strands of Marxism include classical Marxism, orthodox communism and neo-Marxism (refer to Heywood, 2019:37–42). Social democracy stands for a balance between the market and the state. At the heart of social democracy there is a compromise between an acceptance of capitalism as the only reliable mechanism for generating wealth, and a desire to distribute wealth following moral, rather than market, principles (Heywood, 2019: 43–44). Other ideologies include fascism, feminism, green ideology, cosmopolitanism, and populism to name a few. Please refer to Heywood (2019:45–53) for a discussion on these ideological traditions. © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 21  Summary An ideology is a coherent set of ideas that guides political action, whether it seeks to preserve, modify, or overthrow existing power structures. The three classical or core ideologies are liberalism, conservatism, and socialism. Liberalism emphasises individualism, freedom, equality, and constitutionalism, with classical liberalism favouring minimal state intervention and modern liberalism showing a more accommodating stance towards government involvement. Conservatism emerged as a response to societal changes and values traditional social orders. Different strands of conservatism, such as paternalistic conservatism and the New Right, have developed in response to various challenges. Socialism originated as a reaction against industrial capitalism, aiming to replace it with common ownership. Social democracy seeks a balance between the market and the state to distribute wealth based on moral principles. Additional ideological traditions include fascism, feminism, green ideology, cosmopolitanism, and populism. Activity 3 1. Discuss with a friend (or in a class discussion): which political party or parties in South Africa would you associate with the ideology of populism? 2. In table format, list the seven key features of liberalism and explain the core idea of each feature in one sentence. 3. Write two sentences on each of the following: the New Right, neoliberalism, and social democracy. 4. Discuss with a friend (or in a class discussion): which political party or parties in South Africa would you associate with the ideology of liberalism? Self-Assessment Questions 3.1 Explain classical liberalism, modern liberalism, conservatism, socialism, and social democracy regarding their key distinguishing features. © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 22  Topic 4 Democracy MODULE OUTCOMES FOR TOPIC 4 This topic relates to Module Outcome 4: Identify the political processes of democracies. In this topic, you will gain knowledge on the following: The concept of democracy. Models of democracy. Different interpretations of democracy. The meaning and characteristics of the rule of law. Parliamentary and presidential systems. Reading Before continuing with this topic, please read the following: Heywood, A. (2019:79–108) (Chapter 4) Please be advised that the content provided in the study guide is merely a broad overview of the work. You need to use Heywood (2019) to study for the examination and to answer the activity and self-assessment questions. 4.1 INTRODUCTION “Democracy is the worst form of government except all the other forms that have been tried from time to time” (Winston Churchill cited in Heywood, 2019:79). All systems of rule seek legitimacy or ‘rightfulness’ allowing them to demand compliance from their citizens or subjects. Legitimacy is thus the key to political stability and the source of a regime’s survival and success. In modern politics, debates about legitimacy are dominated by the issue of democracy, so much so © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 23 that ‘democratic legitimacy’ is sometimes seen as the only meaningful form of legitimacy (Heywood, 2019). Democracy is in the first place defined in a technical/procedural way, namely, it is said a nation is a democracy if the majority rules in that country, and if it can elect another government over the so-called medium term if it wants to. In politics, there is a distinction between legality, and legitimacy (acceptability). The apartheid state under the National Party rule was for example a legal entity with laws, but the majority did not consider it legitimate (acceptable). Democracy is also normatively, or so-called substantially, defined as being a nation where individual freedom, equality and justice occur. Such a country is then considered to be a legitimate regime and a true democracy. The problem in life is that freedom and equality are not defined in essential terms (one definition only) – they exist in different degrees. There is a saying that one person’s freedom can be another’s oppression. 4.2 LEGITIMISING POWER Max Weber constructed three types of authority. Traditional authority is based on long-established customs and traditions. Traditional authority is legitimate because it has ‘always existed’ and is thus sanctified by history. Charismatic authority is based on an individual’s personality or ‘charisma’. It operates entirely through the capacity of a leader to make a direct and personal appeal to followers as a kind of hero or saint. Legal-rational authority links authority to a clearly and legally defined set of rules, the power of a president is determined by formal, constitutional rules (Heywood, 2019:80-81). 4.3 UNDERSTANDING THE MEANING AND NATURE OF DEMOCRACY As democracy is almost universally regarded as a ‘good thing’, it has come to be used as little more than a ‘hurrah’ word, implying approval of a particular set of ideas or system of rule. According to Bernard Crick (2000 cited in Heywood, 2019:90),”… democracy is perhaps the most promiscuous word in the world of public affairs”. A term that can mean anything to anyone is in danger of meaning nothing at all. A useful way to consider the nature of democracy is Abraham Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address (1863) where he spoke about a “government of the people, by the people, and for the people” (cited in Heywood, 2019:90). © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 24 Who are the people? On the face of it, the answer is simple: ‘the demos’ (the people), but every democratic system has restricted political participation. For example, children are excluded from political participation (voting) and, in most instances, the certifiably insane and imprisoned criminals are also restricted from voting (Heywood, 2019). How should the people rule? In the case of direct democracy, popular participation entails direct and continuous involvement in decision-making through referendums and mass meetings. In a representative democracy, democratic participation takes place through voting (Heywood, 2019:91–92). How far should the popular rule extend? What issues are right for the people to decide, and what should be left to individual citizens? In this respect, it is useful to refer to the different models of democracy such as classical democracy, limited democracy, developmental democracy, and people’s or ‘socialist’ democracy. 4.4 MODELS OF DEMOCRACY The classical model of democracy is based on the city-state of Athens where citizens participate in regular meetings of the Assembly, but they are also prepared to shoulder the responsibility of public office and decision-making. However, participation was restricted to Athenian-born males while slaves, women and foreigners were excluded. This form of participation is still evident in the wider use of referendums (Heywood, 2019). In a limited or protective democracy (in the 17th and 18th centuries), democracy was seen less as a mechanism through which the public could participate in political life and more as a device through which citizens could protect themselves from the encroachments of government. Protective democracy aims to give citizens the widest possible scope to live their lives as they choose and is compatible with the belief that individuals should be entirely responsible for their economic and social circumstances (Heywood, 2019). The most novel and radical model of developmental democracy was developed by Jean-Jacques Rousseau. For Rousseau, democracy was ultimately a means through which human beings could achieve freedom or autonomy to a law one prescribes to oneself. Citizens are, therefore, only free when they participate directly and continuously in shaping the life of their community. In this regard, freedom means obedience to the general will. This system of developmental democracy required not only political equality but also a relatively high level of economic equality (Heywood, 2019). © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 25 The people’s or socialist democracy refers broadly to the various democratic models that the Marxist tradition has generated. Marxists were drawn to the ideal of democracy because of its clear egalitarian implications: the goal of social equality brought about through the common ownership of wealth (social democracy), in contrast to ‘political’ democracy, which according to Marxists, only establishes a façade of equality. Marx believed that the overthrow of capitalism would be a trigger that would allow genuine democracy to flourish (Heywood, 2019:99). Although there is some controversy about the most desirable form of democracy, there is a broad acceptance of the liberal democracy model. Heywood (2019:101) states the following central features of a liberal democracy: Liberal democracy is an indirect and representative form of democracy: the political office is gained through success in regular elections that are conducted based on formal political equality. It is based on competition and electoral choice, which is achieved through political pluralism, tolerance of a wide range of contending beliefs, and the existence of conflicting social philosophies and rival political movements and parties. It is characterised by a clear distinction between the state and civil society which is maintained through the existence of autonomous groups and interests, and the market. It protects minorities and individuals through the allocation of basic rights that safeguard them from the will of the majority. There is, however, a considerable amount of disagreement about the meaning and significance of liberal democracy and as such, democracy is interpreted in different ways by different theorists. The most important of these interpretations are advanced by pluralism, elitism, corporatism, the New Right, and Marxism (please refer to Heywood, 2019:101–107 for a discussion on these different interpretations). © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 26  Summary Democracy is a complex concept that plays a central role in modern politics. It is often regarded as the best among various forms of governance, but its definition and interpretation vary. Democracy seeks legitimacy, a crucial factor for a regime's survival and success. There are different ways to define democracy, both procedurally, where the majority rules, and normatively, involving individual freedom, equality, and justice. The people's role, the method of rule, and the extent of popular rule vary in different models of democracy. Four main models include classical democracy, limited democracy, developmental democracy, and people's or socialist democracy. The liberal democracy model features indirect and representative governance, political competition, pluralism, autonomy of civil society, protection of minorities and individual rights. Various interpretations and approaches to democracy, such as pluralism, elitism, corporatism, the New Right, and Marxism, highlight its multifaceted nature and significance in political theory (Heywood, 2019). Activity 4 1. Discuss with a friend (or in a class discussion): is democracy the best form of government? 2. Write two paragraphs each on present-day South African democracy and the USA democracy. Are they both democracies, even if they differ? Substantiate your answer. 3. Discuss with a friend (or in a class discussion): within the African context, do you agree with Rousseau’s view that freedom ultimately means obedience to the general will? Give reasons for your answer. 4. Summarise the five rival views of democracy on one page in bullet point format. 5. Write one paragraph on Max Weber’s three kinds of authority. Self-Assessment Questions 4.1 Indicate the main distinguishing features of the classical model of democracy, limited or protective democracy, developmental democracy, people's or socialist democracy, and liberal democracy. © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 27  Topic 5 The Nation-State and Nationalism MODULE OUTCOMES FOR TOPIC 5 This topic relates to Module Outcomes 1 and 2: Demonstrate an understanding of the core concepts in the field of politics. Identify the institutions of different regime types and forms of state. In this topic, you will gain knowledge on the following: What is the state? What is the nation-state? Rival theories of the state. The role of the state. The state and globalisation. The future of the nation-state. Reading Before continuing with this topic, please read the following: Heywood, A. (2019:130–149) (Chapter 6) Please be advised that the content provided in the study guide is merely a broad overview of the work. You need to use Heywood (2019) to study for the examination and to answer the activity and self-assessment questions. 5.1 INTRODUCTION What is a nation? A nation is a complex phenomenon that is shaped by a collection of factors. Culturally, a nation is a group of people joined together by a shared language, religion, history and traditions, although nations display various levels of cultural heterogeneity. Politically, a nation is a group of people who see themselves as a natural political community, classically voiced through © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 28 the quest for sovereign statehood. Psychologically, a nation is a group of people distinguished by a shared loyalty or affection in the form of patriotism (Heywood, 2019). 5.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF NATIONALISM One the one hand, nationalism can be seen as a progressive and liberating force, presenting the vision of national unity of independence. On the other hand, it can be an irrational and reactionary doctrine that allows political leaders to conduct policies of military expansion and war in the name of a nation. The character of nationalism is also shaped by the circumstances in which nationalist aspirations occur, and by the political causes to which it is attached. Therefore, when nationalism is a reaction against the experience of foreign domination or colonial rule, it tends to be a liberating force linked to the goals of liberty, justice and democracy. However, when nationalism is a product of social dislocation and demographic change, it has an insular and exclusive character and can become the vehicle for racism and xenophobia. Furthermore, nationalism is also moulded by the political ideals of those who advocate it. In distinctive ways, liberals, conservatives, socialists, fascists and even communists have been attracted to nationalism. As such, nationalism is a cross-cutting ideology. The main types of political nationalisms are liberal nationalism, conservative nationalism, expansionist nationalism, and anti-colonial/postcolonial nationalism (Heywood, 2019). The central theme of liberal nationalism is a commitment to national self- determination. It does not uphold the interests of one nation against other nations. It proclaims that each nation has a right to freedom and self- determination and that all nations are equal. The ultimate goal of liberal nationalism is the construction of a world of sovereign nation-states. Conservative nationalism is concerned with the promise of social cohesion and public order embodied in the sentiment of national patriotism. Human beings seek security and identity through membership of a national community. Patriotic loyalty and a consciousness of nationhood are rooted largely in the idea of a shared past (Heywood, 2019). Expansionist nationalism has an aggressive, militaristic and expansionist character. The aggressive side of nationalism first appeared in the late 19th century when European powers took part in the ‘scramble for Africa’. To a large extent, both world wars of the 20th century resulted from this expansionist form of nationalism. Expansionist nationalism also embodies the theme of national rebirth or regeneration and commonly draws on myths of past greatness or © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 29 national glory. Anti-colonial and postcolonial nationalism are inspired by the struggle against colonial rule in the developing world. In Africa and Asia, it helped to build a sense of nationhood shaped by the desire for national liberation (Heywood, 2019). 5.3 THE FUTURE OF NATIONALISM AND THE NATION-STATE By the end of the 20th century, it was fashionable to declare that the age of nationalism was over as the world had become a world of nation-states. The nation had been accepted as the sole legitimate unit of political rule. Nationalists believe that the nation-state is the only viable political unit which implies that supranational bodies such as the European Union will never be able to rival the capacity of national governments to establish legitimacy and command popular allegiance. However, there are also powerful forces that threaten to make the nation-state redundant. Internally, nation-states have been subjected to an upsurge in ethnic, regional and multicultural politics creating the concern that in the context of economic and cultural globalisation, nations are no longer able to provide a meaningful collective identity. Nationalism is thus in the process of being replaced by multiculturalism. External threats such as the advances in the technology of warfare demand that world peace be policed by intergovernmental or supranational bodies such as the United Nations. Economic life is progressively being globalised due to world markets and transnational corporations. Finally, the nation-state may very well be a threat to the global ecological balance as nations are mostly concerned with their own strategic and economic interests, paying little attention to the ecological consequences of their actions (Heywood 2019). Summary A nation is a complex entity shaped by cultural, political, and psychological factors. Culturally, it comprises individuals who share language, religion, history, and traditions, though cultural diversity exists within nations. Politically, a nation represents a natural political community that often aspires to sovereign statehood. Psychologically, it fosters shared loyalty and patriotism among its members. Nationalism, on the one hand, can be seen as a progressive force, unifying people in the pursuit of national independence and liberty. On the other hand, it can be irrational and reactionary, driving militaristic expansion and xenophobia. Nationalism's character is influenced by historical contexts and the political ideals of its advocates. There are various forms of nationalism, including © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 30 liberal nationalism, conservative nationalism, expansionist nationalism, and anti- colonial/postcolonial nationalism. The future of nationalism and the nation-state is challenged by ethnic, regional, and multicultural politics, as well as globalisation, supranational bodies, and ecological concerns. Activity 5 1. Define the following concepts: tribalism, xenophobia and ethnic cleansing in no more than two sentences each. 2. Discuss with a friend (or in a class discussion): do you think nationalism and the nation-state are still relevant today? Give reasons for your arguments. 3. Discuss with a friend (or in a class discussion): what type of nationalism or nationalisms are evident in southern Africa and South Africa? Self-Assessment Questions 5.1 Identify the central themes and key differences between liberal nationalism, conservative nationalism, expansionist nationalism, and anti-colonial/postcolonial nationalism. © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 31  Topic 6 Political Dynamics: Representation and Elections MODULE OUTCOMES FOR TOPIC 6 This topic relates to Module Outcome 4: Identify the political processes of democracies. In this topic, you will gain knowledge on the following: Theories of representation. Different electoral systems. Functions of elections. Theories of voting behaviour. Reading Before continuing with this topic, please read the following: Heywood, A. (2019:218–243) (Chapter 10) Please be advised that the content provided in the study guide is merely a broad overview of the work. You need to use Heywood (2019) to study for the examination and to answer the activity and self-assessment questions. 6.1 INTRODUCTION Representation can be defined as a relationship through which an individual or group acts on behalf of a larger body of people. It must be noted, however, that there is no agreed theory of representation, but several competing theories based on particular ideological and political assumptions (Heywood, 2019). © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 32 6.2 THEORIES OF REPRESENTATION There are four principal models of representation: trusteeship, delegation, the mandate, and resemblance. In the trustee model, a trustee who possesses education and understanding acts in the interests of those who are less fortunate. This theory has elitist implications as it emphasises that, once elected, representatives should think for themselves and exercise independent judgement as the mass of people does not know their own best interests. In the delegate model, a delegate acts as a conduit conveying the views of others, while having little or no capacity to exercise his own judgements or preferences (think of ambassadors). This model of representation supports mechanisms that ensure that politicians are bound as closely possible to the views of the represented. According to the mandate model, a party gains a popular mandate that authorises it to carry out whatever policies or programmes are outlined during the election campaign. In the resemblance model, a representative government could be said to constitute a microcosm of the larger society, containing members drawn from all groups and sections and in numbers that are proportional to the size of the groups in society at large (Heywood, 2019 6.3 FUNCTIONS OF ELECTIONS Elections can be seen as a ‘two-way street’ that provides the government and the people with the opportunity to influence one another. The central functions of elections include the following: recruiting politicians; forming governments; providing representation; influencing policy; educating voters; building legitimacy, and strengthening elites (Heywood, 2019). 6.4 ELECTORAL SYSTEMS An electoral system is a set of rules that govern the conduct of elections. There are two broad categories based on how they convert votes into seats. Firstly, there are majoritarian systems, in which larger parties typically win a higher proportion of seats than the proportion of votes they gain in the election. This increases the chances of a single party gaining a parliamentary majority and being able to govern on its own. Secondly, there are proportional systems that guarantee an equal (or at least, a more equal) relationship between the seats won by a party and the votes gained in the election (Heywood, 2019). Please refer to Heywood (2019:230–238) to learn more about the advantages and disadvantages of these two categories of electoral systems. © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 33 6.5 VOTING BEHAVIOUR It is important to consider the context of psychological, sociological, economical and ideological influences on voting. These can be assessed using rival models of voting. The party-identification model is based on the sense of psychological attachment that people have to parties. The sociological model links voting behaviour to group membership that reflects the economic and social position of the group to which they belong. According to the rational-choice models, voting is rational at which the individual decides on his party preference based on self- interest. The dominant-ideology model focuses on the degree to which individual choices are shaped by a process of ideological manipulation and control (Heywood, 2019). Summary Representation involves a relationship where individuals or groups act on behalf of a larger body of people, but there is no universally accepted theory of representation. Instead, multiple competing theories exist, each rooted in particular ideological and political assumptions. The four principal models of representation are trusteeship, delegation, mandate, and resemblance. Elections serve various functions, acting as a "two-way street" enabling both the government and the people to influence each other. Key electoral functions include recruiting politicians, forming governments, providing representation, influencing policy, educating voters, building legitimacy, and strengthening elites. Electoral systems are sets of rules governing election procedures. There are majoritarian systems, which favour larger parties by allocating a higher proportion of seats than their vote share, potentially leading to single-party majority rule. Proportional systems ensure a more equal relationship between seats and votes, promoting multi-party representation. Voting behaviour is influenced by psychological, sociological, economic, and ideological factors. Different models of voting help understand these influences: party identification is rooted in psychological attachment to parties; the sociological model links voting to group memberships reflecting social and economic positions; rational-choice models consider voting as a rational decision © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 34 based on self-interest, and the dominant-ideology model explores how individual choices are influenced by ideological manipulation and control. Activity 6 1. Discuss the functions of elections in an essay of two pages. 2. Discussion with a friend (or in a class discussion): do you think that a referendum is a suitable voting tool to assist with controversial public policy issues? Substantiate your answer. 3. Discussion with a friend (or in a class discussion): what models of voting can you identify in South Africa? Give reasons for your answer. 4. Write an essay on the different models of voting. Your answer should not exceed two pages. Self-Assessment Questions 6.1 What are the competing models of voting and what are the drawbacks of each model? © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 35  Topic 7 Political Parties and Party Systems MODULE OUTCOMES FOR TOPIC 7 This topic relates to Module Outcome 4: Identify the political processes of democracies. In this topic, you will gain knowledge on the following: Types of parties. Functions of political parties. Types of party systems. Decline of political parties. Reading Before continuing with this topic, please read the following: Heywood, A. (2019:244–268) Please make sure that you read this study guide carefully as it contains additional information that is not in the prescribed textbook. 7.1 INTRODUCTION A political party is a “group of people that is organised to win government power, by electoral or other means” (Heywood, 2019:245). Political parties also display many common characteristics such as the adoption of a broad issue focus and being unified by a general ideological identity. © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 36 7.2 TYPES OF POLITICAL PARTIES Heywood (2019:246–251) distinguishes between the following types of parties: cadre and mass parties; representative and integrative parties; constitutional and revolutionary parties; left-wing and right-wing parties; mainstream and populist parties. 7.3 FUNCTIONS OF POLITICAL PARTIES Political parties have a variety of main functions with representation as the primary function. Representation refers to the ability of parties to respond to and articulate the views of their members and voters. Elite formation and recruitment refer to the responsibility of parties to provide states with political leaders. Other functions include goal formulation; interest articulation and aggregation; socialisation and mobilisation; and the organisation of government (Heywood, 2019). 7.4 PARTY SYSTEMS A party system can be conceptualised as a relatively stable network of relationships between parties that is structured by their number, size and ideological orientation (Heywood, 2019). The major party systems found in modern politics are one-party systems, two-party systems, dominant-party systems, and multiparty systems. In a one-party system, a single party possesses the monopoly of power through the exclusion of all other parties. In Africa and Asia, for example, one-party systems have normally been constructed around the dominant role of a charismatic leader and drawn their ideological identity from the views of that leader. Their monopolistic position typically helps to entrench authoritarianism and enhances the danger of corruption (Heywood, 2019). A two-party system is dominated by two major parties that have a roughly equal prospect of winning government power. These systems are characterised by three criteria. Although several parties may exist, only two parties enjoy sufficient electoral and legislative strength to have a realistic prospect of winning government power. The larger party can rule alone, while the other one provides the opposition. Power alternates between these parties with the opposition serving as a ‘government in the wings’ (Heywood, 2019:261). © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 37 A dominant party system is competitive in the sense that a number of parties compete for power in regular elections, but it is dominated by a single major party that enjoys prolonged periods in power. These systems are characterised by the tendency for the political focus to shift from competition between parties to factional conflict within the dominant party. Although dominant party systems can be said to be stable and predictable, there are also several serious drawbacks. Firstly, it tends to erode the constitutional distinction between the state and the dominant party. Secondly, the prolonged period in power can result in complacency, arrogance and corruption in the dominant party. Such a system is characterised by weak and ineffective opposition. Finally, it can destroy the democratic spirit by encouraging voters to fear change and to stick with the ‘natural’ party of government (Heywood, 2019:262 & 264). A multiparty system is characterised by competition amongst more than two parties thus reducing the chances of a single-party government and increasing the likelihood of coalitions. Although multiparty systems create internal checks and balances within government, there are various pitfalls and difficulties relating to coalition formation, for example, unstable and fractured coalition governments (Heywood, 2019:264–265). 7.5 IS PARTY POLITICS IN A CRISIS? Although the number of political parties across the globe continues to grow, it is also evident that those parties are becoming less effective as agents of representation which can be observed in the decline of both party membership and partisanship. Please refer to the discussion in Heywood (2019:266–267) for an in-depth discussion on this phenomenon. Summary Political parties are organised groups that aim to win government power through various means, sharing common characteristics such as a broad issue focus and ideological identity. These parties come in different types, including cadre and mass parties, representative and integrative parties, constitutional and revolutionary parties, left-wing and right-wing parties, and mainstream and populist parties. Their functions include representation, elite formation, goal formulation, interest articulation, socialisation, mobilisation, and organising government. Party systems can vary from one-party systems, two-party systems, and dominant-party systems, to multiparty systems. These systems © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 38 shape the political landscape and influence governance. While the number of political parties is increasing globally, there is a growing concern about the declining effectiveness of parties as agents of representation, indicated by reduced party membership and partisanship. This raises questions about the state of party politics in contemporary politics. Activity 7 1. Write a page (± 300 words) on the functions of political parties. (See page 252 and further of your textbook.) 2. Name five types of political parties. 3. Write three paragraphs on the two-party system and include the advantages and disadvantages of this system. 4. Differentiate between a one-party system and a dominant-party system in one paragraph. 5. Discuss with a friend (or in a class discussion): what type of party system is prevalent in South Africa? Substantiate your answer. Self-Assessment Questions 7.1 What are the major party systems in modern politics, and what are the key characteristics and potential drawbacks of each? © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 39  Topic 8 Democratic Development and the Legacy of Apartheid in South Africa MODULE OUTCOMES FOR TOPIC 8 This topic relates to Module Outcomes 5 and 6: Demonstrate an understanding of the dynamics of democratisation in Africa and the nature of the post-colonial state. Demonstrate an understanding of South Africa’s transition from the apartheid regime to a democratic regime. In this topic, you will gain knowledge on the following: The procedural and substantive interpretation of democracy. Racial stratification. Imperialism and Afrikaner nationalism. Segregation and apartheid. The policy of apartheid. Economic, political and social legacies of apartheid. Reading Before continuing with this topic, please read the following: De Jager, N. et al. (2020:2–59) (Chapters 1 and 2) You need to use your Heywood (2019) textbook as the theoretical basis to better understand the South African situation. 8.1 INTRODUCTION The South African democracy was born in 1994 through a negotiated settlement, with Nelson Mandela becoming the first democratic president. The country's © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 40 democratic journey began in 1910, transitioned to authoritarian rule in 1948, and transitioned to democracy in the 1990s, as part of Huntington's Third Wave of Democratisation (De Jager et al., 2020). 8.2 PROCEDURAL AND SUBSTANTIVE DEMOCRACY The development of a state's democracy is influenced by its historical, social, economic, and political structures. South Africa's apartheid history has led to challenges such as poverty and inequality. Although South Africa has created a constitutional democracy, the more substantive issues of equality remain a challenge. The procedural characteristics in measuring democracy entail aspects such as the structure of government, democratic institutions, and elections, while substantive characteristics include transformation, equality, and the redistribution of wealth (De Jager et al., 2020). Democratic consolidation is dependent on strong political institutions and effective regime performance, which are essential for creating a stable democratic order. Democratic institutions and processes, such as elections, constitution, and party system, work together to create a stable democratic order. Regime performance focuses on the quality of life under the new democratic system, which includes ensuring safety, security, economic growth, and territorial integrity. A democracy cannot consolidate if political institutions are weak, and the state cannot effectively govern without encouraging sufficient economic and social activities to improve the quality of life for all citizens (De Jager et al., 2020). A procedural democracy is necessary to guarantee the freedom of people, and this can be achieved in the following three ways. Firstly, democracy provides for free and fair elections that allow freedom of expression, assembly and organisation and the right to form and select opposition political parties. Secondly, the right to self-determination is guaranteed through choosing a particular government. Thirdly, democracy facilitates choice meaning that individuals make normative political choices thus governing themselves (De Jager et al., 2020). Whereas the procedural interpretation of democracy focuses on the establishment of the necessary institutions for a representative constitutional state, the substantive interpretation is concerned with equality in socio-political life to ensure equality of participation in the political process. Thus, the focus is on factors that lead to democratic deepening and a high democratic quality. The argument boils down to the following: for citizens to participate in the democratic © STADIO (Pty) Ltd Politics and Government I POG152 41 process, the political and social playing field must be levelled to some degree, which in turn will generate sufficient democratic commitment and legitimacy to consolidate democracy. The focus is thus on creating an enabling environment for political participation. If the basic aspects of survival such as food and shelter are taken care of, citizens can then involve themselves with issues of governance and democracy (De Jager et al., 2020). Democratisation describes the process of creating democratic institutions and overall democratic citizenship rooted in a democratic culture. Democratisation is, therefore, a process and not an event. It is the move from authoritarianism towards democracy. Although South Africa (SA) transitioned from an authoritarian state to a democracy in 1994, it is still in the process of democratising. According to the democracy development theory, there are three essential elements required to build a sustainable democracy, namely: (1) political institutions, (2) the quality of democracy bot