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Ga je zo overnemen De hemisferen liggen in het forebrain. Locatie van iets is reside Ammonia: stof in urine die het chemosensory systeem ondersteund In the visuel system fine detail and gross are separated in the lgn wich is ready at 15 weeks in preterm bird Transnatal Learning Perinatal Learnin...

Ga je zo overnemen De hemisferen liggen in het forebrain. Locatie van iets is reside Ammonia: stof in urine die het chemosensory systeem ondersteund In the visuel system fine detail and gross are separated in the lgn wich is ready at 15 weeks in preterm bird Transnatal Learning Perinatal Learning Het vermogen van een organisme om Leren dat plaatsvindt tijdens de informatie of stimuli die het prenataal (voor de perinatale periode, wat de tijd vlak Definitie geboorte) heeft ervaren, te herkennen of erop te rond de geboorte omvat (kort voor, reageren in de postnatale periode (na de tijdens, en kort na de bevalling). geboorte). Prenatal is in de buik Autosomale aandoening: als er een defict is in een gen down heeft een extra gen en is er geen Welke stof rolt dna uit Pasa model: Het PASA-model verklaart hoe de hersenen zich aanpassen aan de gevolgen van veroudering door een verschuiving van activiteit van posterieure naar anterieure gebieden. Deze verschuiving wordt gezien als een compensatiemechanisme waarmee ouderen cognitieve achteruitgang proberen te beperken. Het model benadrukt de veerkracht en flexibiliteit van de hersenen bij het ouder worden. Wat vonden de piagents in het algeeen en naast siegler en case wat was de laatste Week 4 Chapter 19: Risk and Resilience in Development An Introduction to Child Development, Keenan, Evans, Crowley Why do some children do better than others despite having to deal with setbacks? Child psychologists are very interested in this and have done many studies on risk and resilience. Risk is defined as stressors such as poverty, poor upbringing, disrupted home situation. Resilience. This occurs when children experience positivity outcomes despite significant risk (as defined above) Historical background The roots of resilience research on individuals can be traced back to psychopathological studies. The work of Garmezy was particularly important. During the 1940s and 1950s when he wanted to investigate how the children of parents who had a severe mental disorder showed that they were doing very well. In response to these striking data, he started investigating the competence of these children. Another important research by Werner and Smith to 700 children in Hawaii that lasted more than 40 years showed that, although these children grew up with a number of risks such as: poverty, lower education of the parents etc. Many of these children were able to build successful lives (finish school, work and stable marriage). This was probably because, despite the parents being poor and poorly educated, they did form a stable foundation that the children could build on so that they could develop. Risk Factors Risk factors. These are catastrophic events such as war, natural disasters, family abnormalities (divorce, bereavement, etc.). But also economic conditions such as poverty, exposure to negative environment (ghetto or bad neighborhood). Protective factor. Everything that helps reduce the vulnerability of children. Vulnerable factors. All characteristics of the individual that contribute to derailment in bad conditions (think for example of addiction sensitivity) A number of risk factors are elaborated in the book, the most important ones below. Parental bereavement The death of a parent is one of the most traumatic events for children. This represents a permanent loss and separation of a primary caregiver. This can be reinforced by stressors such as family restructuring, new expectations of the child's behavior, grief of the parents and remembrance of the death of the parents. Yet the effects are smaller than when the parents divorce. Parental separation / divorce and inter-parental conflict Separating parents increases the risk of psychological, behavioral, social and academic problems. Research shows that children who grow up in single-parent families are less successful than children from two-parent families. The most at risk are children of divorced parents where there is a lot of conflict (fight separation). Although the intensity of these problems decreases, the problems remain visible until the young adulthood. There is also talk of the intergenerational cycle of difficulties in relationships with others. This means that children of divorced parents are more likely to have difficulties in the relationship with family, intimate relationships, and at work. Their own separation ratio is also higher than children whose parents stayed together. Abuse and maltreatment Abuse and maltreatment are a major risk for the development of a child. Mistreatment ensures that the environment in which they grow up is so different from children with a normal environment that a successful development gets in the way. These children show little resilience. The lack of protective factors, but threats, from the family circle makes this a difficult group. Parental psychological disturbances The mental and drug / alcohol problems of parents are also linked to a number of behavioral, socio-emotional and cognitive problems in children. Many of these children have double risks, because there are other problems such as financial problems, stressful events and psychological problems. Most studies on this topic describe the risk run by parents with a psychiatric disorder that focus on depression, especially depression in mothers. This is because women are more susceptible to depression than men. For example, depressive mothers show more negative and hostile behaviors, less positive behaviors and more disregard to their children. Often it is the worst for the young children and depression in the mother often occurs when the children are young. Little is known about heredity. Socioeconomic risks Child income poverty - this is the case when a family falls below the minimum amount that they fail to provide for their basic expenses - creates an increased risk of negative outcomes for the child. For example, poverty has serious effects such as poor physical health, lower academic performance and school performance and they achieve less and are more likely to have social emotional and behavioral problems. Here too, the younger the child is, the worse the consequences will be. Stressful life events Many events can be experienced as stressful. This could for example involve a move, but also the daily irritating and unpleasant events. This has the most effect on parents, but these events can also affect the well-being of children. It has been found that these kinds of events can lead to emotional problems. For example, it appeared that girls who experienced more stressful events had more psychological problems such as depression. High levels of stress can also have physical consequences such as headaches, hair loss or fever. Children's social context The social context also plays a major role in the risk that children run. If a child grows up in a poor / bad neighborhood he will be exposed to delinquent peers and multiple violent events. Societal mechanisms In addition to all the aforementioned risks, the social context is also very important. Examples are discrimination, racism and prejudices that can negatively affect the development of children. Racism and ethnic discrimination are linked to less perceived control, fear and frustration. Studies have also shown that teachers have low expectations of these children, which could be an explanation for underachieving children of an ethnic minority. Catastrophic events One can think of war, extreme deprivation and natural disasters. Children are often unable to see the consequences of such catastrophes. This could include the loss of loved ones and the witness of atrocities. If these children are placed in a different (safe) environment, it is possible to lead normal lives again. Measurement of Risk As we have just seen, there are many factors that can contribute to the risk that children run. That is why scientists have developed cumulative risk models. These models assume a cumulative effect on a child. The theory behind this is the cumulative risk theory, which states that the sum of the risks is greater than a single risk (The whole is greater than the sum of its parts). This is because the exposure to two risk factors makes an even greater violation of the adjustment / recovery capacities of a child. Sameroff stated, as a result of his research, that children with more risk factors were absent more often at school, scored lower at school and (therefore) also often had a low IQ. This difference also appeared to increase as these children were exposed to one or more risk factors for longer. Risk specificity Risk specificity are the specific characteristics of individual risk factors, both in specific effect and how it relates to the specific outcomes of the child. The cumulative approach described above, however, also had a drawback, since it assumes that each risk factor weighs just as much and that they can be compared. The question of whether the quantity or quality of the risk factors is most important was Sameroff's research. He concluded that quantity was the most important when predicting outcomes for children and that the combination of risk factors did not matter. Another study used the Strengths and difficulties questionaire (SDQ) to see what weighed heavier. Here too it was found that the amount of risk factors was more important than the individual type of risk factors. This study used the adverse life events scale that measures the stress in life. This scale measures the level of stress, and consists of 25 possible events that took place the year prior to an examination that the children have no influence on. The same result also came from this measurement. Protective / Vulnerability Factors It is often the case that children who succeed in life despite risk factors, there are protective factors that compensate for the risk factors in their lives. Protective factors are characteristics of people, environments, situations and events that lead to positive adaptation to setbacks. In addition, there are also vulnerability factors. These can be placed together with protective factors on a construct in which protective factors are on the one hand and vulnerability factors on the other.  Domain Factor 1. Personal characteristics Gender Intelligence Temperament Sociability Perceived control Self-esteem Coping style 2. Family characteristics Attachment style Parent-child interactions Parenting style Family cohesion Family routines Family support Family resources 3. External support Systems Friendships Teacher support School resources Organised activities Neighbourhood cohesion Garmezy identified three broad sets of variables that can serve as protective factors: 1. personal characteristics of the child such as sex, intelligence and personality traits  2. characteristics of the family such as heat, family cohesion and structure 3. external support systems such as peers and school External support systems are support systems in the social environment, such as friendships, which contribute to a better resilience of the child. Theoretical Models of Risk and Resilience Protective factors can have a big effect if there are setbacks in the child's life, but they are not extremely important if they are not present. Protective and vulnerability factors must therefore have an interactive relationship with a risk factor. The interactive relationship between protective and vulnerability factors can be described on the basis of a moderator. Model Factor Risk resilience relation Moderator (interactive) effects Protective / vulnerability Resilience is determined by the presence of a significant interaction with the risk factor that has a high impact on the high-risk population Main effects Promotive If the study population is high-risk, resilience is determined by a significant main effect of the factor on the outcome. If the study population is both high risk and low risk, individuals'resilience can not be demonstrated in these models Mediator effects Deterioration / mobilization Resilience can not be demonstrated in these models. The factor explains how, in general, risk is related to outcome. Model Factor Risk-resilience relation Resilience is determined by the presence of Moderator a significant interactive relationship with risk (interactive) Protective/vulnerability whereby the factor either has no effect effects among the low-risk population or its effect is magnified in the high-risk population If the study population is high-risk, resilience is determined by a significant main effect of the factor on the outcome. If the study Main effects Promotive population is both high risk and low risk, individuals’resilience cannot be demonstrated in these models Resilience cannot be demonstrated in these Mediator Deterioration/mobilisation models. The factor explains how, in general, effects risk is related to outcome. Moderator effect models. These are models based on the interactive relationship between protective / attributable factors and risk factors. Main effects models. These models investigate the resilience and factors that determine the outcomes of children in risk factors. Mediator effect models. These models investigate the role of intervening or intermediating variables on the risk effects. Developmental Outcomes: Competence and Maladjusment In recent years, the focus of research on resilience has shifted to positive psychology. An example is the study of social competence in combination with resilience, which showed that children who did well in one domain often did less in another domain (academic and internalizing / externalizing problems). From this it was concluded that resilience can no longer be determined by one domain of social competence, but that it can be determined by several. Contributions of Risk and Resilience Research Resilience is nowadays often used in interventions. These are aimed at making the development of the child as positive as possible, so they are focused on the development perspective. A distinction is made between three different programs: Risk-focused programs. These programs focus on reducing risks. Asset-focused programs. These programs focus on the positive aspects in the life of a child and try to improve them so that these points increase in quality and quantity. Process-oriented programs. These programs try to improve the most important adjustment systems of children such as important relationships, functioning in the intellectual field and self-regulation systems. Chapter 20: Social Problems in Schools An Introduction to Child Development, Keenan, Evans, Crowley The School Context Comparing with the performance of others is one of the biggest forms of social pressure in the classroom. This is often not conducive to self-confidence because (usually) it is compared with children who do better, so that the self-esteem of these children decreases. Many students try to hide it when they think they are performing less. They do this through self-worth protection, which is lowering the commitment at school so that their performance is explained by their motivation instead of their skills. Pressure of peers also an important factor in whether or not to do best in school. Especially in Eastern cultures (in contrast to our Dutch 6-ys culture) being a streber is seen as positive. Victimization and Bullying in School Bullying consists of a whole range of aggressive behaviors that are characterized by repetition and an imbalance in power. This behavior is repeated so that the victim is bullied several times and can not defend himself. This may be because there are several bullies, which is small / thick / thin / ugly etc. It has been found that about 5% of children in Western countries bullies and 10% are bullied. There are various types of bullying, such as knocking someone down, taking lunch money, making fun of a group or cyberbullying where children are harassed and ridiculed via the internet. A difference between cyberbullying and bullying in 'real life' is that children who are bullied via the internet can not run away. In addition, the perpetrators can easily remain anonymous Bias bullying. This is bullying a victim when he belongs to a certain group such as race, creed, gender or orientation instead of someone's individual characteristics. Victims of bullying often do not dare to speak to teachers or parents. The effects of bullying can be very drastic and even lead to suicide. Most people who are bullied suffer from anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, physical and psychosomatic complaints. In very bad cases the victim can commit suicide. It is often thought that bullying leads to the above effects. However, it may also be the case that children are more susceptible to bullying because they are depressed and / or low self-esteem. The causes of bullying are countless, one can think of social factors such as tolerance for violence and bullying, abuse of power or the way in which the media portrays you. At the level of the community one can think of the level of violence in the neighborhood and the safety in the neighborhood, but also socio-economic factors. At school, the school climate and the quality of the relationship with teacher and fellow pupils play a significant role. Interventions against bullying There are different types of interventions. Quality Circles (QSs). These are small groups of students. These students try to solve bullying using standard procedures such as collecting data and presenting it. Children who participated were very positive and felt that they were more consciously busy with bullying. Cooperative groups. This involves working in groups on everyday activities, which increases the group feeling and is better for academic outcomes. However, it can still be disturbed by bullying. Social and Emotional Aspects of Learning. This program contains seven themes such as say no to bullying, this focuses on what bullying entails, how it feels, why people bully and how they could respond to it. Assertiveness training. These are training sessions that are given to improve their low self-esteem and their way of dealing with bullying. However, this should not be offered as the only strategy, but in combination with others. Bullying often takes place outside the classroom, such as in the schoolyard in the corridors or on the way home. Bullying can be reduced through good policy, eg through more structure and more opportunities for creativity so that boredom and bullying is reduced. Supervision is important here so that action can be taken in case of bullying. Reactive strategies There are different strategies for punishing bullies. For example, there are reactive strategies that take place after bullying has taken place, such as a direct sanction. E.g. relatives, sending out lessons, following a plague course, etc. The aim is to make the perpetrator aware of his behavior and to show the group that plague is not tolerated. There are even schools with so-called bully courts. These are types of courts where appropriate punishments are imposed on bullies. Another strategy is the restorative justice. With this strategy one tries to make the bully aware of the feelings and consequences that his bullying behavior has on the victim. The three principles on which this strategy is based are: Responsibility Restoring the life of a victim Resolution. The effectiveness of this technique depends on the extent to which it is possible for pupils to be able to talk about their feelings or relationships. It has been shown that this strategy yields positive results. In addition to the aforementioned strategies, there are also therapy-based techniques to combat bullying, for example: Method of shared concern. This method aims to make the bullies aware of what is being done to the victim. This method is often used when a group bullies one victim. Support Group Method. This is similar to the above method and is a method that does not punish, but focuses on changing the problem behavior. Through the combination of peer pressure to generate a pro-social response and the realization of the victim's damage, the bully tries to make aware of the suffering that the victim has been subjected to. School refusal School refusal and truancy is not the same. School refusal often has to do with a phobia or strong aversion to school that the child is absent for longer periods. Truancy is sporadically choosing to take a lesson. Truancy is often accompanied by behavioral problems. There are different types of school refusers Persons with separation anxiety. These people do not dare to be separated from their parents or their safe environment for a long time. Persons with a specific phobia. These people have a phobia for school and everything around it. Persons who suffer from more generalized anxiety or depression. In addition to the above-mentioned types of school refusers, it is also worthwhile to distinguish between acute school refusers and chronic school refusers. In acute school refusers, there must have been three years of good attendance before they suddenly refuse to go to school. These children can often be very depressed. The chronic school refusers are more often linked to neurosis, dependence, mental illnesses of parents and lower self-esteem. The prognosis for chronic cases is often worse than for acute cases. School refusal is not a diagnosis in the DSM, but children who refuse school are often classifiable as persons with phobia or separation anxiety. Kearney believed that it is best to look at the function of refusing school. It is important to understand what the child wins when not going to school. This is also good to use for setting up interventions. Kearney states that school refusal can come from four functions that are based on negative and positive reinforcement: 1. Negative reinforcement. This is to avoid a negative something or something that the child dislikes. This avoiding works empowering or rewarding because it avoids the situation. This includes: 1. generalized anxiety. 2. escape aversive social situations. 2. Positive reinforcement: an action or outcome after behavior that ensures that the behavior will occur more often. So because children see that behavior has a positive outcome, they will do this more often. This includes 1. Get attention 2. More fun things to do at home Chapter 21: Atypical Development An Introduction to Child Development, Keenan, Evans, Crowley We have mapped out the 'typical' development of a child in almost all previous chapters, but this chapter will deal with the atypical development of a child. Williams syndrome. This is an inborn developmental disorder characterized by a mental handicap and certain facial features and often accompanied by abnormalities of the major arteries. The syndrome is caused by a deletion of chromosome 7. What is Atypical Development? A classical position that is often used by developmental psychologists in studying atypical development, is to determine whether a child is delayed or otherwise (different). Developmental delay. This is a delayed, but normal, path of development. Developmental difference. This is a qualitatively different path of development (eg a disability) A way of assessing a child's disadvantage can be done by comparing the child's performance on a standardized test with the level of peers on that test. If the norm is compared with the performance of it, it can be checked whether and how many (months) the child lags behind on a particular skill. For research it is important to see which children should be examined and which should not. Researchers often use children in research that are more than 1.5 standard deviations below the average. Of great importance in testing a child is his lexical development, or the development of the vocabulary. Why Study Atypical Development? By studying atypical developments of children, certain profiles can be put together. On the basis of these profiles of atypical development, children who have to deal with this can be helped better with their disability. In this way, the quality of life, but also the duration of life, can be improved and extended. Impact of Scientific Discovery and Technological Innovation Three developments have taken place that have increased our understanding of atypical development: Human Genome Project. This is a program to fully elucidate the structure of the human DNA, down to the level of the individual base pairs, and to identify and locate all human genes. One of the most surprising results of the human genome project was the relatively much smaller number of genes found: only about 20,000-25,000, while before that time estimates of more than double the number circulated. These findings have led researchers to focus on structural chromosomal abnormalities in order to identify breakpoints on chromosomes. However, there are (ethical) risks associated with this, think of the genetic design of your own child, or termination of pregnancies by amniocentesis, this is investigating the DNA of your child to check for abnormalities. New brain research methods. We have all seen and treated these methods before: PET scans, ERP, MEG etc. We have also learned more about atypical development (from the brain) based on these brain research methods. Eye-tracking methodology. This technique uses the eye movements of a child to see what he focuses on. This is especially useful for babies because they can not talk yet. Understanding Atypical Pathways Williams syndrome This is an inborn developmental disorder characterized by a mental handicap and certain facial features and often accompanied by abnormalities of the major arteries. The syndrome is caused by a deletion of chromosome 7. It is often characterized in two areas: language and cognitive domains. This is because cognitive domains in this population are often less, but the language capacities are often of an average level. In the field of cognitive domains, these children often have difficulties with planning, problem solving and spatial cognition, which is why language skills are opposed. These children are often very social and communicative very strong. In the past it was thought that this difference was because language was innate. Specific language impairment (SLI). A language development problem of both the production and the understanding of language. However, this has nothing to do with other abnormalities that can occur in the development. Autistic spectrum Autism is an inborn developmental disorder that is characterized by limitations in the field of social interaction and (non-) verbal communication and by a limited, repetitive or stereotyped behavioral pattern. With the help of the DSM or the ICD-10 it can be determined whether the person shows the problems in the field of communication, social interaction and repeated behavior with a limited interest. Six different groups can be distinguished, these are shown in the table opposite. Subgroup Cognitive ability measured by IQ Language delay Asperger syndrome IQ > 85 None  High-functioning autism IQ > 85 Delay Medium-functioning autism IQ 71 - 84 Yes/no Low-functioning autism IQ < 70 Yes/no Atypical autism Late-onset ? Pervasive developmental disorder Some mild ? Developmental psychologists have developed different theories to explain the shortcomings that are usually associated with autism. Theory of mind hypothesis. This hypothesis states that people with autism have difficulties in understanding that others have thoughts and feelings. Executive function hypothesis or autism. This states that the deficit is mainly in executive functions. Executive functions include many different skills such as inhibiting inappropriate reactions, being mentally flexible and coming up with general ideas. Central coherence hypothesis or autism. This hypothesis is based on a limitation of being able to arrive at an integrated (or coherent) image. Central coherence refers to the tendency to process incoming information globally and in the context. According to this theory, people with autism spectrum disorders are not able to combine loose stimuli into a meaningful whole. A lot of research into autism has been done in recent decades, making progress. It has been found that an early short intervention for joint attention improved the outcomes of these children. Joint attention is the process in which social partners deliberately focus on a shared object in the external environment. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) Relatively often children are developing, who are diagnosed with ADHD (about 3-7%) - excessively hyperactive and impulsive (they fight, can not sit still and do not pay attention). ADHD is most diagnosed from the 7th year of age, the symptoms just described will (in most cases) be visible throughout life. The cause of ADHD is not yet known, and is currently under investigation. There are several hypotheses about it. Children with ADHD have difficulty with their inhibitory control (self-monitoring), which is an aspect of the executive functions. These children then have difficulty in controlling a predominant motor response. Children with ADHD have memorizing instructions for a task. Impact of the Absence of a Sensory Input on Developmental Pathways So far, we have treated various limitations that are the result of certain genetic disorders such as Down syndrome, Williams syndrome autism and ADHD. Now we will focus on the loss, or lack of, one or more senses. It is not yet clear whether the absence of a sense, for example sight, can be classified under atypical developments. There are three points that need to be taken into account: Some forms of blindness are the result of genetic abnormalities (just as with the atypical development) Blind children often show behaviors that suit autism. A way of learning is lost in blind children, which ensures that they can not learn (writing) language. This means they follow a different development path. Two possible pathways causing ADHD, causing a wide range of symptoms. Although it is clear that a blind child does not experience normal development and rather an atypical development, it is not entirely clear where children with such a disability are classified. In early development, much of the contact between parent and child is visual. Although blind children miss this, it appears that they can make a certain contact with their care: imitation, smiling and they can be socially attentive to their mother. It thus appears that information that is not visual is also enough for the emergence of interactions. These interactions can for example be touches or rhymes. This shows that there is a very different form of communication between parents and children who are blind. Joint attention is divided into 4 behaviors in the literature. the person who wants to contact requires the attention of the other person. the partner in an appropriate way.  The person who asks for attention with a reaction to see that he is aware of the attention of the other person. the attention is focused on the object or an event by exchanging smiles, vocalizations or different looks. In more than 50% of children with visual impairment, there is still another limitation, for example an auditory limitation. For these children it is important to learn that they have to go through the development independently. Risk factors in the environment: emotional disturbances The influence of a child's environment has been described by Bronfenbrenner. His Ecological system model provides a framework to all forces that affect the development of a child a beautiful framework. The starting point of this model is: the development of a child is influenced by people, events and developments in the environment. Bronfenbrenner saw the environment as a kind of onion, with a different environmental influence with each layer. There are four layers: 1. Micro system: environment that the child experiences directly, such as the family. This layer spreads over time with friends, school, etc. The factors in this layer can mutually influence each other. 2. Meso system: the connections between different microsystems, such as the parents' contact with the teacher of the school. It is important that these connections support each other. 3. Exosystem: settings of which the child is not directly part but which can influence their development. Like the workplace of the parents, is it flexible with working hours? 4. Macro system: contains values, laws and (belief) convictions of society. In the figure you can see exactly what is going on in which layer within this model. A temporal dimension of the system is the chronosystem: historical changes that can influence the other systems, such as the demands placed on the child by the digital age.