physiology group 5 respiratory.pptx

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM GROUP FIVE(5)  Contents 1. Introduction to Respiratory System Physiology 2. Anatomy of the Respiratory System 3. Mechanics of Breathing and Gas Exchange 4. Types of Respiratory Systems 5.Lung Volumes 6. The Role of Alveoli in Respiration 7. Fun...

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM GROUP FIVE(5)  Contents 1. Introduction to Respiratory System Physiology 2. Anatomy of the Respiratory System 3. Mechanics of Breathing and Gas Exchange 4. Types of Respiratory Systems 5.Lung Volumes 6. The Role of Alveoli in Respiration 7. Function of the Diaphragm in Breathing 8. Control of Breathing: Neural Regulation 8. Impact of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Levels 10. Adaptations of the Respiratory System 11. Common Respiratory Disorders and Their Physiology 12. Importance of Respiratory Health Maintenance 13. Future Research Directions in Respiratory Physiology The respiratory system is vital for gas exchange, providing oxygen to tissues and removing carbon dioxide. It comprises structures such as the lungs, airways, and alveoli. Understanding its physiology is crucial for grasping how oxygen and other gases are transferred, as well as the role of various physiological mechanisms in maintaining homeostasis. TYPES OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS 1.External Respiration: This process involves inhaling and exhaling gases. When you breathe in, oxygen enters your lungs, and when you breathe out, carbon dioxide is expelled. It’s the basic act of breathing.​ ​ 2.Internal Respiration: Here, gas exchange occurs between the blood and body cells. Oxygen from the blood is delivered to the tissues, and carbon dioxide produced by cells is transported back to the blood for removal.​ ​ 3.Cellular Respiration: This process takes place within cells. It’s how our cells convert food (glucose) into energy (ATP). Oxygen is essential for cellular respiration, and carbon dioxide is a byproduct​ Key Structures That Facilitate Breathing 1.Diaphragm: this sheet of muscle 3.Air Passages: These include the separates the chest (thoracic) cavity nose, mouth, larynx, trachea, from the rest of the body. It plays a bronchi, bronchioles, and terminal crucial role in breathing by contracting bronchioles. during inspiration and relaxing during Air flows through these passages into expiration. and out of the lungs 2.Intercostal muscles: found between 4.Pleura the ribs, these muscles control rib The pleura are membranes surrounding movement. the lungs, providing a protective layer They assist in expanding and contractin and allowing for smooth movement g the thoracic cavity during breathing during breathing. They also help in reducing friction.  EXTERNAL RESPIRATION​ External respiration refers to the process of gas exchange that occurs between the air in our lungs and the blood.​ Inhalation: When you breathe in, air enters your lungs through the trachea (windpipe). It travels through bronchi and bronchioles until it reaches the alveoli—tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs.​ Gas Exchange: In the alveoli, oxygen from the inhaled air diffuses into the bloodstream, binding to hemoglobin in red blood cells. Simultaneously, carbon dioxide (a waste product) moves from the blood into the alveoli to be exhaled.​ Exhalation: During exhalation, carbon dioxide-rich air is expelled from the alveoli, up the bronchioles, and out through the trachea​ ​  INTERNAL RESPIRATION Internal respiration refers to the process of gas exchange that occurs between the blood and body tissues. Let’s break it down: Oxygen Delivery: Oxygen-rich blood from the lungs is transported by arteries to various body tissues. Hemoglobin in red blood cells binds with oxygen, allowing it to be delivered to cells. Cellular Respiration: Within cells, oxygen is used in a process called cellular respiration. This metabolic process converts glucose (from food) into energy (in the form of ATP). Carbon dioxide is produced as a byproduct. Carbon Dioxide Removal: Carbon dioxide, a waste product of cellular respiration, diffuses from cells into the bloodstream. It binds to hemoglobin or dissolves in plasma. The blood then carries it back to the lungs for exhalation  CELLULAR RESPIRATION Cellular respiration is a vital process that occurs within our cells, allowing them to generate energy (in the form of ATP) from nutrients. Here’s how it works: 1.Glycolysis: In the cytoplasm, glucose (a sugar) is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate. This process yields a small amount of ATP and NADH. 2.Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle): Pyruvate enters the mitochondria, where it undergoes the citric acid cycle. During this cycle, more ATP, NADH, and FADH₂ (another energy carrier) are produced. 3.Electron Transport Chain (ETC): NADH and FADH₂ transfer their electrons to the ETC, located in the inner mitochondrial membrane. As electrons move through protein complexes, ATP is synthesized via chemiosmosis. 4.Oxygen’s Role: Oxygen is essential for cellular respiration. It serves as the final electron acceptor in the ETC, allowing the process to continue efficiently.  Lung Volumes Lung volumes are also known as respiratory volumes. It refers to the volume of gas in the lungs at a given time during the respiratory cycle. Lung capacities are derived from a summation of different lung volumes. The average total lung capacity of an adult human male is about 6 litres of air. Lung volumes measurement is an integral part of pulmonary function test. These volumes tend to vary, depending on the depth of respiration, ethnicity, gender, age, body composition and in certain respiratory diseases. A number of the lung volumes can be measured by Spirometry- Tidal volume, Inspiratory reserve volume, and Expiratory reserve volume. However, measurement of Residual volume, Functional residual capacity, and Total lung capacity is through body plethysmography, nitrogen washout and helium dilution technique. Lung Volumes Tidal Volume(TV) It is the amount of air that can be inhaled or exhaled during one respiratory cycle. This depicts the functions of the respiratory centres, respiratory muscles and the mechanics of the lung and chest wall. The normal adult value is 10% of vital capacity (VC), approximately 300-500ml (6‐8 ml/kg) ; but can increase up to 50% of VC on exercise Inspiratory Reserve Volume(IRV) It is the amount of air that can be forcibly inhaled after a normal tidal volume.IRV is usually kept in reserve, but is used during deep breathing. The normal adult value is 1900-3300ml.  Expiratory Reserve Volume(ERV) It is the volume of air that can be exhaled forcibly after exhalation of normal tidal volume. The normal adult value is 700-1200ml. ERV is reduced with obesity, ascites or after upper abdominal surgery Residual Volume(RV) It is the volume of air remaining in the lungs after maximal exhalation. Normal adult value is averaged at 1200ml(20‐25 ml/kg).It is indirectly measured from summation of FRC and ERV and cannot be measured by spirometry. In obstructive lung diseases with features of incomplete emptying of the lungs and air trapping, RV may be significantly high. The RV can also be expressed as a percentage of total lung capacity and values in excess of 140% significantly increase the risks of barotrauma, pneumothorax, infection and reduced venous return due to high intra thoracic pressures as noticed in patients with high RV who require surgery and mechanical ventilation thus needs high peri-operative inflation pressures. Lung capacities Inspiratory capacity(IC) It is the maximum volume of air that can be inhaled following a resting state. It is calculated from the sum of inspiratory reserve volume and tidal volume. IC = IRV+TV Total Lung Capacity(TLC) It is the maximum volume of air the lungs can accommodate or sum of all volume compartments or volume of air in lungs after maximum inspiration. The normal value is about 6,000mL(4‐6 L). TLC is calculated by summation of the four primary lung volumes (TV, IRV, ERV, RV). TLC may be increased in patients with obstructive defects such as emphysema and decreased in patients with restrictive abnormalities including chest wall abnormalities and kyphoscoliosis. Vital Capacity(VC) It is the total amount of air exhaled after maximal inhalation. The value is about 4800mL and it varies according to age and body size. It is calculated by summing tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, and expiratory reserve volume. VC = TV+IRV+ERV. VC indicates ability to breathe deeply and cough, reflecting inspiratory and expiratory muscle strength.VC should be 3 times greater than TV for effective cough. VC is sometimes reduced in obstructive disorders and always in restrictive disorders  The Role of Alveoli in Respiration Tiny Structures with a Big Impact Gas Exchange Alveoli are microscopic air sacs where the actual gas exchange occurs. Their thin walls allow oxygen to diffuse into the bloodstream while carbon dioxide diffuses out. Surface Area The large number of alveoli provides an enormous surface area, maximizing the efficiency of gas exchange. Each lung has approximately 300 million alveoli. Role of Surfactant Surfactant is a substance produced by alveolar cells that reduces surface tension, preventing alveoli from collapsing and ensuring they remain open for gas exchange during breathing. Function of the Diaphragm in Breathing The Primary Muscle Driving Respiration Inhalation Process During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and flattens, increasing chest volume which decreases pressure, drawing air into the lungs. This action is essential for efficient breathing. Exhalation Process When the diaphragm relaxes after inhalation, it returns to a dome shape, decreasing the thoracic cavity volume, thus pushing air out of the lungs—an integral part of the respiratory cycle. Control of Breathing: Neural Regulation How the Brain Coordinates Breathing 1.Brain Centers Breathing is primarily regulated by centers in the brain, including the medulla oblongata and pons, which respond to carbon dioxide levels and blood pH. 2.Peripheral Receptors Peripheral chemoreceptors located in the carotid arteries and aorta monitor blood oxygen levels and send signals to the brain to adjust breathing rates as needed. 3.Feedback Mechanisms Feedback mechanisms involving sensory neurons help maintain homeostasis by modifying the breathing rate in response to changes in oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH levels in the blood. Impact of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Levels Oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in the body are tightly regulated through the respiratory system. High carbon dioxide levels stimulate increased respiratory rates to enhance gas exchange and expel CO2 efficiently. Conversely, low oxygen levels can trigger hypoxia, resulting in elevated breathing frequency to adapt and maintain sufficient oxygen supply for metabolic processes in tissues.  Adaptations of the Respiratory System Evolutionary Changes for Efficiency 1. High Altitude Adaptation Individuals living at high altitudes often develop larger lung volumes and increased red blood cell count, enabling better oxygen retention in low- oxygen environments. 2.Athletic Adaptations Athletes tend to possess greater pulmonary capacity and stronger diaphragm muscles, allowing for improved performance by maximizing oxygen intake during intense physical activity. 3.Age-Related Changes As individuals age, lung elasticity decreases, leading to reduced airflow and gas exchange efficiency. Understanding these changes is vital for promoting respiratory health in older adults. 4.Environmental Influence Exposure to pollutants can lead to adaptive changes in the respiratory system, potentially resulting in increased mucous production to trap irritants or structural changes in the airways. Common Respiratory Disorders and Their Physiology Asthma Asthma is characterized by chronic inflammation and narrowing of the airways, leading to difficulty in breathing. It can result from genetic and environmental factors. Inflammation and Narrowing: Asthma causes inflammation and muscle tightening around the airways, making it harder to breathe. This results in symptoms such as wheezing, coughing, and chest tightness. Asthma Attack: When these symptoms worsen, it’s called an asthma attack or flare-up. During an attack, the airways become more constricted, leading to breathing difficulties. Management: While there’s no cure for asthma, it can be managed effectively. People with asthma can lead normal, healthy lives with proper treatment and life style adjustments Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) COPD encompasses lung conditions like emphysema and chronic bronchitis, which obstruct airflow and hinder gas exchange. Lifestyle factors such as smoking are significant contributors.It encompasses conditions like emphysema and chronic bronchitis. Here are the key points: Symptoms: People with COPD experience coughing, sometimes with phlegm, difficulty breathing, wheezing, and tiredness. Causes: Long-term exposure to irritating gases or particulate matter, often from cigarette smoke, is a major cause of COPD. Management: While there’s no cure, managing COPD involves lifestyle changes, medications (such as bronchodilators and glucocorticosteroids), and sometimes surgical procedures like bullectomy or lung transplantation. Pneumonia Pneumonia is an infection that inflames the air sacs in one or both lungs, reducing oxygen absorption. It can be caused by bacteria, viruses, or fungi. Causes: Pneumonia can be caused by bacteria, viruses, or fungi. Common culprits include the flu, COVID-19, and pneumococcal disease. Symptoms: Symptoms may include coughing (with yellow, green, or bloody mucus), fever, chills, and difficulty breathing. Treatment: Treatment depends on the cause and severity. Antibiotics are used for bacterial pneumonia, while antivirals and antifungals address viral and fungal infections. Importance of Respiratory Health Maintenance Maintaining respiratory health is crucial for overall well-being. Regular exercise, avoiding smoking, and staying clear of pollutants can significantly improve lung function. Annual check-ups and vaccinations, like the flu vaccine, help prevent respiratory infections. Awareness of environmental factors and taking proactive measures can enhance lung health and prevent disease, ensuring a better quality of life. Future Research Directions in Respiratory Physiology Gene Therapy Ongoing research into gene therapy aims to provide targeted treatments for respiratory diseases by modifying genetic factors that contribute to conditions like cystic fibrosis. Technology in Respiratory Medicine Advances in telemedicine and wearable technology offer promising avenues for continuous monitoring of respiratory health, potentially leading to early interventions and improved outcomes. Thank you GROUP MEMBERS 1. Adu Nyame Sarfo Dorothy - UEB3000123 2. Ababio Agyarko Amaning - UEB3014423 3. Ofori Keren Boatemaa - UEB3015823 4. Obeng Boateng Pokua - UEB3003823 5. Yeboah Jessica Akosua - UEB3011123 6. Yeboah Winifred - UEB3007723 7. Karikari Adutwumwaah Christabel - UEB3015423 8. Frimpong Erica - UEB3000623 9. Yeboah Elisa Nana Aubenas - UEB3013323 10. Donkor Blessing Antoinette - UEB3011623 11. Yeboah Benedicta - UEB3001923 12. Acheampong Abena Asaa - UEB3005023 13. Amponsah- Gambrah Tracy Snr - UEB3012323 14. Nsiah Jessica Manu - UEB3016923 15. Nketia Selina - UEB3007523 16. Amofa Angela - UEB3015623 17. Zakaria Nafisah - UEB3013223 18. Okyere Michael Boahen - UEB3002223 19. Awenzuay Awenlie Pamela - UEB3000723 20. Nyarko Ebenezer - UEB3000223 21. Njonbi Kelvin Kwesi - UEB3010323 22. Goin Kimathi Clement - UEB3001823 23. Gyamfi Gifty Pokuaa - UEB3004123 24. Addai William - UEB3004623 25. Afrifa Grace Boateng - UEB3001023 26. Asiedu William - UEB3014223 27. Owusu Sylvia - UEB3007923 28. Larbi Harriet - UEB3007123 29. Nketiah Vincent Boateng - UEB3001723 30. Tettey John - UEB3007023 31. Korankye Gideon Flynn - UEB3002323