Philosophy 1 Reviewer PDF

PHILOSOPHY 1 REVIEWER - The solution to philosophical Dinglasan, Jasmine Anne S. questions is to ask them. CHAPTER 1: Understanding Reality in - The search for answers only begins Bigger Picture...

PHILOSOPHY 1 REVIEWER - The solution to philosophical Dinglasan, Jasmine Anne S. questions is to ask them. CHAPTER 1: Understanding Reality in - The search for answers only begins Bigger Picture the moment we ask philosophical LESSON 1: REVEALING THE WHOLE questions. - The answer one finds will - PHILOSOPHY IS NOT ONLY FOR determine his/her choices in life. PHILOSOPHERS. - According to German philosopher - Every person has the capacity to Mar$n Heidegger ( 1889-1976 ) find the value - To philosophize is to look at life of philosophy in his/her own life. from the holis7c perspec7ve. - That makes it different from - Without a formal introduction to science. the discipline, - Scien7fic ques7on is always confined to par7cular. you may not be aware that you have been - While philosophical ques7on engaging in philosophy. leads into the totality of beings and inquiries into the whole. - For example, the favorite household ESSENCE OF HUMAN FREEDOM conversation that we invoke against anything People interpret things as they encounter and anyone whom we disagree about: them in diYerent ways. “Pilosopo Beginning with a particular question that ka!” unavoidably goes to the roots, philosophical question eventually Philosophical Reflection becomes a revelation about the whole - To reflect philosophical is to think reality. about an important question that Essence of human freedom is not does not have a definite or ready limited to human and freedom. It also answer. involves essence of man, essence of the world and essence of God.  Not simply question of freedom to do or Dialogues - illustrate how dialectics to become but what he is free from. is an eYective means of examining and evaluating truth claims. Errors or Plato - 427-347 B.C.E - According to inconsistencies of a claim are Plato, there were things that can deceive, demonstrated using rational abilities. confuse or misled in this world if we are - In the process, we learn more about our position or view-what it not careful in finding the answers. assumes, what it truly means, and God gave us intellect or mind to figure what it entails. When we articulate these things, our mind is things out on our own. sharpened. This faculty of reason or rational - It is the exchange or confrontation between diYering positions (one capacity allows us to pursue our as thesis and the other as questions so we can come nearer to the antithesis) culminates to a synthesis that is a resolution of truth. opposing views. Philosophical discovery - is seen as the Truth and Dialectics result of collaboration with partners in Dialectics is indispensable since it leads dialogue or conversation. us closer to truth. Finding the truth, in a way, involves a kind of “truth-ing,” and - We need to welcome questions dialectics is one of its earliest and tested forms. that probe into the core of what we claim because it is the best way to When we inquire about philosophical questions in partnership with another, in reveal what is not obvious. some form of debate, we learn more - The dialectics of the ancients later because we are challenged to think about developed in the modern era into the question rigorously and exhaustively. thesis, antithesis and synthesis. A development or progress in thought thus occurs. Dialectics - is a technique to resolve philosophical questions. It is an art of The philosophical question is clarified, at refutation that dates to the ancient the least, and so it contributes to a better Greeks. understanding of the question itself, or of the kind of answer that would qualify as plausible. SOCRATES DEBATING POLITELY WITH SOMEONE - The philosopher Socrates is most ALLOWS US TO DISCOVER MANY noteworthy in his use of dialectics. THINGS. - His method of question and IT REVEALS OUR BELIEFS AND answer CHALLENGES US TO DEFEND THOSE illustrates how views need to be BELIEFS. defended with consistency and clarity. THIS RATIONAL ACTIVITY TEACHES US TO - The series of questioning and HOLD ON ONLY TO THOSE BELIEFS WE answering he subjected Athenians into CAN DEFEND AND TO REMAIN OPEN SO was eYective in drawing out underlying WE CAN REVISE OUR VIEW THROUGH assumptions. TIME AND IN COLLABORATION WITH OTHERS. - It is not enough to claim something LESSON 2: THE PHILOSOPHICAL as true. ENTERPRISE - One must give good reasons as A. Wonder, Knowledge, Ignorance basis for any claim and the claim must be able to withstand further scrutiny - Human beings want to understand and examination. the world and to know the truth for there are so many things we have G.W.F HEGEL & KARL MARX not figured out. - The German philosophers G.W.F Hegel and Carl Marx claimed that - Plato claimed that philosophy there is a dialectical pattern even in begins in wonder. history as reflected in resolutions of - Wonder is the beginning for it contradictions through time. stimulates us to venture into philosophy. - The interplay of opposing views is necessary for progress. CURIOSITY is directed to a single flee/ng or - Confrontations of this kind must momentary object that captures our not be avoided at all. interest - We need this exchange of ideas so To be wise is to know the truth we can grow. - Philosophy may be understood as an activity in pursuit of wisdom. (Etymology: Greek word PHILOS Philosophy.... means "love" and SOPHIA means "wisdom" ) TEACHES US TO BE OPEN AS WE STRIVE - Philosophers are far above the TO KNOWBETTER. usual people we encounter daily –  they are not swayed by popular PHILOSOPHICAL THOUGHT IN THREE views and are not easily deceived. VIEWS Cosmocentric view - wondering about - They are the best people to seek the world or questions that concerned the counsel for they see things clearly. universe as the starting point of They know truths ordinary people everything do not know. - Cosmology is a branch of For Aristotle, there are two kinds of philosophy concerned on the universe. wisdom: - Thales, the first person to wonder about the origin of the universe where his Theoretical wisdom - is to know view says that water is the underlying necessary truths and their logical principle of all things. consequences - Anaximander, thought that water could not simply explain the hot, the cold, Practical Wisdom - deals with and dry so he believes that it would be knowledge in the realm of action. To have “boundless” practical wisdom is to know truths that to - Pythagoreans, identified as do with our dealings with fellow human numbers as the first principle because being they observed how the world is governed by mathematical ratio. - Philosophers believe that to be - Atomists, says that the starting wise is the best we can be. point of everything is “atoms” - For this reason, they devote their Theocentric view – believes that all time to examining their held beliefs and things existed from God opinions that are also called intuitions to arrive at truth. - Avicenna, the first Muslim philosopher who argued that in this ARISTOTLE world, the existence of beings can be - The answers they seek are not traced to another being responsible for its dependent on authority or their emotion. existence. - Views are scrutinized by the - Christianity greatly influenced Faculty of reason-that which according to philosophy. Aristotle separates us from plants and - Because a holistic account of animals. reality is demanded by philosophy, highly - He claimed that our rational trained and educated theologians turned faculty is the best element in us, a divine to religious texts and doctrines. quality that we share with gods. - There were a number of medieval - This led him to the conclusion that philosophers who philosophized using the best life for man is one that is devoted the theocentric view. to philosophy. - Among them are Avicenna, St. Augustine, and St. Thomas Aquinas.  - Nothing is ever concluded when one engages in philosophy. The inquiries we make are always Anthropocentric view – was a result both fruitful of the rise of modern science and the because they produce various diminished authority of man itself. perspectives that enrich our understanding of the - Bertrand Russell explained that complexities of progress in the scientific field made man this world. realize the practical utility of science as a technique rather than a doctrine that CHAPTER 2: THE REFLECTIVE LIFE explained the nature of the world. - This idea sheds light on the LESSON 3: THE VALUE OF Philosophies characterized in the period PHILOSOPHICAL REFLECTION rationalism and empiricism. Socrates - professed that philosophical Rationalism reflection is necessary in the life of every - Is committed to the view that person. His pronouncements of "know knowledge is acquired through reason thyself" and "the unexamined life is not independent of sense experience. worth living" are to be understood this - View held by the foremost modern way. philosopher Rene Descartes. - According to him, clear and ⁃ philosophized where people distinct ideas are the foundation of usually gathered (agora in Greek) knowledge and complelled those he - Plato was also a rationalist since conversed with to THINK, to he claimed that ideas alone are real DEFEND their views, to ACCOUNT whereas things are illusory. for what they know and do not - Knowledge for all rationalists is know. based on ideas or concepts. ⁃ He did this by asking individuals a Empiricism SERIES OF QUESTIONS. You can - Holds that all knowledge is imagine how people were ultimately derived from sense annoyed! It is not common for experience. people to welcome a discussion - The modern philosophers, John that reveals how little they know. Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume, all held this view. SOCRATIC METHOD - John Locke, claimed that the ⁃ The series of questioning and human mind at birth is like a blank sheet answering that Socrates employed of paper (tabula rasa) that is later filled in engaging in philosophical through sense experience. reflection came to be known as - The dialectics between these SOCRATIC METHOD. It is an views continue to this time.  eYective method of education that which has Latin and Greek roots. So our is valued even to this time. locally adopted word for philosophy finds 6 TYPES OF SOCRATIC QUESTIONS its aYinity to its Greek etymology. It is an acceptable word as our THE SOCRATIC METHOD: SIMPLIFIED equivalent Filipino word for philosophy. 1. Ask a challenging, open-ended It is unfortunate however, that the term question. pilosopo has come to be understood as 2. Build on the first question by asking having a negative meaning. Contrary to why? lover of wisdom, “pilosopo” refers to 3. Come up with ideas based on these someone who reasons poorly. questions. 4. Interrogate your ideas with continual FALLACY questions. There are many ways to mislead people 5. Repeat steps 2-4 to get closer to a into accepting something as true. better solution. It is easiest to persuade those who lack It is ideal that you ask these questions training in analytical and critical thought. with a group Faulty reasoning or fallacious of people to get diYerent perspectives. arguments maybe employed undetected through language or through irrelevant PHILOSOPHICAL REFLECTION issues. For example, one kind of fallacy of ⁃ is indispensable because we do language is equivocation. not realize what we truly believe in until we are CHALLENGED TO Equivocation – a kind of faulty reasoning DEFEND THEM. that can be deceiving because of using a word in two diYerent ways within an SOCRATES argument. Was an excellent teacher although he did not even look at himself as one ( Fallacy of Relevance – a kind of fallacy Socrates - Plato - Aristotle ). that can be deceiving by attacking a Was very good in asking questions person instead of his/her argument. This Was eYective in making his students is called or attack against a person. think for themselves Has the role of gadfly ( annoys those PILOSOPO TASYO who do not bother to find the truth) ⁃ The pilosopo in this sense, is a Awakened those who were asleep by social critic. He is similar to engaging them in a cross- examination of Socrates being a social gadfy. Like their views Socrates, Pilosopo Tasyo walked around public places conversing In Philippine society, we have a term politics and society. He expressed close to the notion of a philosopher- that views that are deep and of "PILOSOPO" consequently diYicult to "PILOSOPO" OR FILOSOPO is not an understand or take seriously. original Filipino word. It has come down ⁃ This is why Pilosopo Tasyo was to us through the Spanish "Filosofo", viewed by others as a fool.  ⁃ People like Socrates and Pilosopo The phenomenon is studied, not by Tasyo are uncommon in society. isolating it from others, but by examining Because of their wisdom, they the relations it has with other proclaim thoughts that are phenomena. unsettling and radical. They seek Philosophy broadens its analysis to WISDOM. arrive at wisdom and truth REALITY AS PHENOMENON LESSON 3: AN EXERCISE OF TRUTH - The situations we find ourselves in and MAKING the perceptions we acquire as we go through life become the very bases and REALITY AS PHENOMENON the stimuli to philosophize. ⁃ Philosophical reflection always Going back to the example, the way we investigates phenomenon; the conceive of love is founded on our world is constituted as lived, personal experiences of love from experienced, thought of, childhood until the moment that understood and investigated as precedes a philosophical reflection on phenomenon. love. The books we have read and even ⁃ By way of example, to know what movies we have watched that had is true love, (knowing in something to say about love are one of philosophical sense) our those things that influence our own investigation involves the views. This is “truth-ing” at work. phenomenon of love. Love is a When we speak of reality, we are in no non- physical phenomenon with way claiming that our view is the only physical manifestations. correct view. As we are not of supreme intelligence to SCIENCE know things as they really are, we can OBSERVATION THROUGH never claim that the reality we talked EXPERIMENTS AND about is the way things really are. CALCULATIONS ARE THE DATA Immanuel Kant pointed this out when USED TO ARRIVE AT he synthesized empiricism and CONCLUSION. THE SPECIFIC rationalism. He claimed that the data we PHENOMENON TO BE get from sensory experience (empiricism) UNDERSTOOD IS ISOLATED TO are not things-in- themselves or things as YIELD VALUABLE INFORMATION. they really are but are instead things-as- Science narrows its analysis in they-appear to us. order to know something. Our mind then uses its categories (rationalism) to understand phenomena PHILOSOPHY It is always in our nature to find truth USES PHENOMENON OR RAW and meaning. We may be finite beings, EXPERIENCE TO FORM THE BASIS FOR but we are special and unique because TRUTH. we are drawn toward those that are beyond us.  We are intrigued by perfection, beauty decisions. That is why getting RELEVANT immortality among others. information is one of the basics in We seek to surpass our limits because knowledge or learning. we have the power to do so through our The democratization of information is a intellect or reason. very good thing. However, it has also Our humanity then becomes our great brought some very bad things. Many endeavor. students nowadays mistake downloading That is why our life is best directed to as research and every information from knowing ourselves better and the web as factual or true. Many still need understanding our humanity. to be reminded that some information are correct, some are incorrect, some are accurate, some are inaccurate, some are LESSON 4: AN EXERCISE OF TRUTH - reliable, an some others unreliable. MAKING It is diYicult to find truth and wisdom if we are NOT skilled in getting the right, if INTERNET is one of the most outstanding not the essential, information. human achievements. Some people will do whatever it takes to Due to the development of internet in withhold information for selfish reasons. the late 20th century, mankind is enjoying When LIES and TRUTH are readily easy and unlimited access to information available, it is diYicult to become than all the libraries combined on earth. knowledgeable and to BE WISE would You can search anything in the internet even be more challenging and it will instantaneously give back Advances in technology such as that of search results. the Internet have influenced our habits. There is no excuse for IGNORANCE Because we are used to getting instant now. information, writing as a way of taking Information has become available down notes is rapidly diminishing among literally in the palm of our hands. students. The truth is, taking photos cannot SEEING THE WORLD IN A NEW replace taking notes because writing is PERSPECTIVE one of the ways we learn and remember. When you really think about it, we notice The photo of a lecture given by your the irony that despite the vastness of the teacher (provided you remember to information we can readily have, we do retrieve it) is extremely diYicult to review. NOT automatically BECOME Learning does not work that way at all. KNOWLEADGABLE OR EVEN WISE. In order to learn, one has TO BE MORE INVOLVED AND MORE STIMULATED. It is not enough to have information if WE learn best by DOING SOMETHING WE DO NOT KNOW HOW TO MAKE CORRECTLY. It would require much eYort SENSE OF THAT INFORMATION. in our part but the result pays oY. On the other hand, too much Another phenomenon brought about by information can also be a bad thing. the Internet is the “selfie” generation. When you have information overload, it Due to our fascination to social media, can get in the way of making good apps for sharing photos and sharing our thoughts have become commonplace. A. Ancient roots Photos and status updates are shared many times a day by millions of people. - To know the truth is diYerent from Status updates can be as trivial as what believing something to be true. food a person is about to have. That - There are views, beliefs, claims information is readily available to as and opinions presented to us every day. many people. WE voluntarily surrender - We can find it in the news, in our privacy without noticing it. social media, in virtual classroom, in the Our notions of keeping in touch has streets, in church and in interactions w/ changed both in terms of quantity (or people. frequency) and quality. - As human persons exposed to the It takes a wise person to realize that following views, our goal, however, is to social media is not going to amount to distinguish false from true and illusion deepening relationships from real. It takes philosophical reflection to enable us to see through the things that EPISTEMOLOGY – A branch of philosophy we do and see the persons that we that is devoted specifically to the become because of what we do. problem of knowledge. It discusses the That is the only way we gain insight. larger philosophical problem of the From such realization, we can external world. consciously decide whether we would like to continue with our present path. - Since every person has a set of There will always be things we are better beliefs or opinions, it is a normal thing oY without. that we have diYerent points of view in What is popular is not always good for life. We call it “diversity of beliefs” us. If we know ourselves better, we will through time and across cultures. make better choices and be happier as an - No one will be in the position to outcome. correct us in our beliefs because there But we can know ourselves only when would be no need to verify we philosophize them. - Every person has a set of beliefs or opinions. We expect people to respect CHAPTER 3: JOURNEY TO TRUTH our beliefs, and we even say that every LESSON 5: DOXA AND EPISTEME person is entitled to his/her own opinion. With the diversity of beliefs DOXA - (Ancient Greek: δόξα; from verb through time and across cultures, there δοκεῖν, dokein, 'to appear, to seem, to seem to be no point in claiming which think, to accept') is a common belief or views are correct. popular opinion. - There is nothing to discuss or to question. They are opinion, and as such, EPISTEME - (Ancient Greek: ἐπιστήμη we do not need to justify them. epistēmē which can refer to knowledge, science, or understanding  - To know is to be able to give ARISTOTLE rational justification. - He developed the syllogism (a - We a r e all responsible to the deductive argument of a certain opinions, views and beliefs that we know. form where a conclusion is - Along with our actions, it must be inferred from two premises) to clear that these will be counted a s demonstrate the truth of a claim or knowledge if verified a n d confirmed. conclusion - Therefore, man's rational capacity - Aristotle identified valid syllogisms (reason) is his tool to verify a n d confirm as proof or demonstration of truth the truth for God and supreme beings - Valid Arguments: those that begin possess all truths. with premises that are knowable and guarantee the truth of a PLATO (429 – 347 BCE) – “Wise men conclusion speak because they have something to - Premises – serve as explanation say; fools speak because they have to say as to why the conclusion is valid or something.” acceptable KNOWLEDGE SYLLOGISMS BY ARISTOTLE - There is certainty - Things are seen as they really are 1. All men are mortal. - Challenges man to know the real 2. Socrates is a man. from the illusory (illusions) 3. Therefore, Socrates is mortal. - In order to know, we need to see beyond the material would In the given example, the first premise through reason and intellect is (1), the second premise is (2) and - Intellect alone enables us to the conclusion is (3) surpass appearances and sees the truth RENE DESCARTES - The father of modern philosophy OPINION - Introduced the notion of - There is uncertainty indubitability (doubting) - Man remains ignorant when he - His published work, “Meditations relies on opinions on First Philosophy” was the basis - Is based appearances and not of the content in the textbook reality - Appearances are unreliable and - Statements that are false, deceptive doubtful and uncertain can't be a basis for knowledge. CROSS-EXAMINATION BY PLATO - Meditations uses t h e methods of - Opinion (starting point) doubt to know dubitable from the - Counter-examples (cited) indubitable - Implications (drawn out) - Descartes decided to put aside every belief in which he could imagine the least doubt as though he knew that it was - His idea is in contrary for Plato’s absolutely false. doctrine. - Those statements that canot be doubted are those that are so clear KNOWLEDGE AND OPINON and distinct that one cannot rationally doubt or reject it. PLATO – To find essence (nature) is to Example: He concluded that he exists find knowledge because it is clear and evident t h a t h e is doubting. JACQUES DERRIDA – non-essential - To doubt would be impossible if he elements or appearance is the basis of doesn't exist. everything that can be spoken or written. To insist on essence is to remain at the Contemporary Period center which does not make - This period is seen as a reaction interpretation available. against the view of the modern period. - Postmodernists are known for - Descarte's destruction of beliefs- their denial of philosophical viewpoints one’s belief must be destructed and regarding reality, truth knowledge, human challenged in order to construct a nature and language. foundation of knowledge. - They attacked the notion of - His concept was similar with objective reality. Reality for them is but a Descartes, except that he focuses on conceptual construct. There is no textual criticisms (a revelation o of the objective reality, there is no truth. problem of sign and signifier- - There are many truths, that is Structuralism, a doing away with particular. There is no truth the author and all that limits reading with a capital T (absolute) interpretation) - They criticized the modern period - They find the desire for a more for emphasizing on reason, logic and democratic society. science. - Therefore, knowledge is no longer - This occurs because these led to viewed as held by a privileged few. knowledge that some postmodernists - Human persons must exercise would tell a s oppressive for truth seemed their freedom to express their to be dictated by those in power. thoughts. - Much of who we are is socially - Relativism of the contemporary determined. period requires much thought. - Students today think that beliefs JACQUES DERRIDA do not need to be justified. - Was an Algerian born French - Many claim that "what is true for philosopher you may not be true for me". - He founded “deconstruction” that - Therefore, to think this way is challenged traditional views of dangerous and irresponsible. language to open up limitless - It is the same as arguing that one interpretations is entitled to his or her opinion or interpretation and so there is no room for MODELS OF TRUTH discussion. Correspondence Theory LESSON 6: QUESTION OF TRUTH AND - is what we use to often verify OPINION truths. TRUTH - True propositions are those that - It is the problem of being clear Correspond with reality. about what you are saying when you say some claim or other is true. - Traced back to Plato & Aristotle - The study of what is real. - A statement about the way the world actually is. - Objective view of things. Linguistics Turn - Philosophers thought that OPINION - A personal belief, view or problems in epistemology are answerable judgement that are held despite their through linguistic investigation. inability to be proven to be true; thus they are inherently subjective. You cannot - It is only the context of a sentence prove that someone is handsome, or that a piece of art is beautiful. You can only that a word has meaning. collect a consensus. - Subjective view of things. Your - They introduce the context own point of view. principle. 1. TRUTH is based on evidences and observable facts. Phenomenology & Existentialism 2. OPINION is a "PERSONAL TRUTH" (that which one person believes - Phenomenology claims that every in.) “Consciousness is conscious of 3. We verify the TRUTH through something”. finding PROOF. - Existentialism emphasizes the 4. But through QUESTIONS our existence of the individual person as a free and responsible agent opinions surfaces un7l we knew determining their own the truth. development through acts of the will Correspondence Theory Language - The correspondence theory - Allows us to talk about the same seemed so obvious that some things and yet disagree because philosophers did not devote much we can mean diYerent things. time thinking about it. Others, - The sense (meaning) of the however, continued it in their statements can vary while the philosophizing. reference remains the same. - Some of these philosophers used the theory when they turned to language while others turned to Ludwig Wittgenstein the truth- maker. - He introduced language- games - In doing so, diYerent philosophers whereas the meaning of language pursued diYerent directions form can be found in its use. one starting point - Aside from the original meaning of words, there are other meanings we attach /use in language such Linguistic Turn as figuratively and or - According to Context Principle “ it metaphorically. is only in the context of a sentence - To understand meaning, people that a word has meaning”. must be playing the same game. - We express several things through - They use other words that come sentences and that is what makes into being (words such as: gay identifying what is claimed in a language, jejemon and selfie) that statement quite tricky. play the same rules in their use of - SENSE is to be understood as language. meaning (connotation or intention Phenomenology & Existentialism in logic). The sense has to be derived in the context that the - Edmund Husserl followed sentence provides. Descarte’s “consciousness” and - Reference (or referent ) pertains to emphasized that even if objects what is referred to or the are no longer present, you can denotation (also known as always play up its existence in extension). your mind. - As Husserl points out, “Go back to the things themselves.” - He invites us to think again.  - Phenomenology, now is a awareness of his experience of himself as philosophical theory which an existing being in the world of things believes that the essence of (existentialism). objects can be thought of, - Jean Paul Sartre proclaimed: investigated and understood more Existence precedes essence. than the usual way of - Obsession of truth is fine but understanding. sometimes we lose sight of our - Upon thinking, we have two engagement with the truth. cognitive attitudes as human - Existentialism restores the persons: ??Natural attitude- we freshness of every experience and are comfortable to the things we learning from it involves learning know? transcendental attitude- we for everyone. are trying our best to investigate - SUBJECTIVE - means someone the essence of every phenomenon create meaning for his/herself. direct to our consciousness. - OBJECTIVE - giving the right answer regarding of how you TWO COGNITIVE ATTITUDES feel. - Existen7alism never destroys a NATURAL - When we are comfortable very exact Mathema7cal world. It with the things that we already know. makes the world more beau7ful. - It became popular because of the TRANSCENDAL - We are trying our best way it paints the world. to investigate the essence of every - Maurice Merleau-Ponty, a phenomenon direct to our Phenomenologist and an consciousness. existen7alist points out that what THEREFORE, THROUGH OUR EFFORTS happens to our bodies affect the TO THINK, WE CAN ARRIVE AT THE way we think.? TRUTH OF EVERY PHENOMENON. - Combining Existentialism and Phenomenology would mean: Existential Phenomenology, which is designed to make us see what every existing thing means to someone who experiences it by a thorough reflection (phenomenology) and through