History Final SUM-UP Chapter 3&4 PDF

History and civilization Chapter 3 Philosophers: Ancient Greek and Roman philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle laid the foundations for Western philosophy, influencing our understanding of the world today. They used reason and logic to explore the cosmos a...

History and civilization Chapter 3 Philosophers: Ancient Greek and Roman philosophers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle laid the foundations for Western philosophy, influencing our understanding of the world today. They used reason and logic to explore the cosmos and human morality, guiding philosophy and science for thousands of years. Pre-Socratic philosophers: Thales of Miletus “the first Greek philosopher’’: In the 7th century BC, Greek philosophy focused on natural science rather than moral issues. Thales of Miletus, born in Miletus in 624 BC, was part of a new movement to understand the universe's structure. As a Monist, he believed the universe was built around one element, which he believed was necessary for life and the creation of the cosmos. Thales concluded that water met these conditions, making him one of the earliest thinkers to investigate natural-world explanations not based on Gods. He established the Milesian School and taught students like Pythagoras. Pythagoras “the father of mathematics’’: Pythagoras, born in 570 BC, was considered the Father of Mathematics. He believed mathematics provided a rational explanation for the universe's workings and governed everything in the universe. Pythagoras discovered complex relationships between numbers through proportions and ratios. He studied geometry and made significant scientific breakthroughs, impacting architecture and mathematics. He was one of the first ancient Greek philosophers to use deductive reasoning, influencing later philosophers like Plato. Pythagoras may have believed his intellectual breakthroughs were heavenly truths, as the Pythagoreans ascribed spiritual significance to numbers. The great three: Socrates: Pythagoras, born in 570 BC, was considered the Father of Mathematics. He believed mathematics provided a rational explanation for the universe's workings and governed everything in the universe. Pythagoras discovered complex relationships between numbers through proportions and ratios. He studied geometry and made significant scientific breakthroughs, impacting architecture and mathematics. He was one of the first ancient Greek philosophers to use deductive reasoning, influencing later philosophers like Plato. Pythagoras may have believed his intellectual breakthroughs were heavenly truths, as the Pythagoreans ascribed spiritual significance to numbers. Plato: Plato, a student of Socrates, was a brilliant and accomplished philosopher who laid the groundwork for ancient Neo-Platonism, driving the development of early mediaeval philosophy and Christian theology. His ideas impacted 19th-century German idealism and 20th-century process philosophy. Plato's most significant contribution to philosophy was his notion of Forms, which proposed a realm of ideal, perfect, and changeless beings underlying the world of common experience. His philosophical works were written as dialogues, with Socrates as the main character. His most renowned work, The Republic, outlines a utopic society with a divide between farmers, artisans, warriors, and the governing class. Aristotle: Aristotle, an ancient Greek philosopher, is considered the most influential thinker of all time. He made significant contributions to metaphysics, ethics, logic, philosophy of mind, philosophy of science, moral psychology, political philosophy, and aesthetics. Aristotle established Formal Logic by creating the Syllogistic system of reasoning, which was not replaced until the mid- nineteenth century. He was the world's first true empirical scientist and differentiated major scientific subjects. Aristotle's philosophy became the intellectual framework of later Western Scholasticism. However, interest in his philosophy waned after the Scientific Revolution. Aristotle's philosophical treatises have all been lost, but his concise and condensed writings continue to provide new insights into his thoughts. St. Thomas Aquinas: St. Thomas Aquinas, a medieval philosopher, developed a Christianized Aristotelianism system that included metaphysics, logic, cosmology, philosophy of mind, religion, nature, political philosophy, and ethics. He differentiated philosophy and Theology by their starting places, starting with general principles about the world and theology with truths about God. Aquinas was canonized as a saint and proclaimed a doctor of the church during the Renaissance. In the late 19th century, Pope Leo XIII called for Aquinas' return, leading to Thomism becoming the official philosophy of Roman Catholicism in 1917. Machiavelli: Niccolò Machiavelli, a Renaissance figure, was a diplomat, philosopher, and historian. His political book, The Prince, is considered the foundation of modern political theory. Machiavelli argued that politics often involves deception and manipulation, suggesting rulers might use harsh methods, including violence, to maintain power and achieve positive outcomes. His ideas emphasize the importance of pragmatic leadership over traditional moral values, making him a key figure in discussions about power and governance throughout history. Machiavelli's insights continue to influence political thought today, with a famous quote from The Prince: "If love and fear cannot exist together, it is far safer to be feared than loved." Descartes: René Descartes, the father of modern philosophy, introduced new ideas that changed how people thought about science, the mind, and knowledge. He developed a scientific approach based on mechanical principles and introduced dualism, which suggests the mind and body are separate but can interact. Descartes' method of systematic doubt, "Dubito, ergo cogito, ergo sum," questioned everything that could possibly be false to find what is true. His work, "Meditations," explored concepts of self-awareness, God, and the physical world. His ideas influenced fields like cognitive science and linguistics. Descartes' persecution stemmed from his challenge to established religious beliefs and his cautious approach to publishing controversial ideas. His legacy continues to impact various disciplines and is considered a pivotal figure in history. Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Jean-Jacques Rousseau, a philosopher, writer, and composer, was a key figure in the Enlightenment and influenced the French Revolution. He believed that societal advancements led to moral decline rather than improvement, and that humans possess an uncorrupted morality. Rousseau categorized governments into monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, each arising from varying levels of inequality. He believed that societal problems stem from political choices and that a better political system could address these issues. Rousseau's philosophy also emphasized education, advocating for a more experiential approach that respects children's emotions and instincts. Immanuel Kant: Immanuel Kant, a key philosopher since Aristotle, transformed Western philosophy by shifting from the Ptolemaic view to a Copernican perspective emphasizing human reason. His work covered metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and aesthetics, laying the groundwork for modern rationalism and empiricism. Kant's central philosophical question focused on the powers and limitations of human reason, leading to the establishment of Kantianism, a philosophical tradition that continues to thrive today. Kant's ethical framework is built around the "categorical imperative," emphasizing treating individuals with respect and dignity, asserting that morality is rooted in rationality rather than emotions or consequences. Karl Marks: Karl Marx, a German economist and political theorist, collaborated with Friedrich Engels to develop a framework for analyzing class, society, and power dynamics. Marx believed that capitalism's inherent inequalities would lead to its downfall and the emergence of a socialist system. He envisioned a classless society with equal access to production means and called for a working-class revolution. Marx's historical materialism emphasized the material conditions of society and the role of labor in shaping society's structure. Despite criticism, Marx's analysis of class struggle remains influential in discussions about economics and social justice today. Friedrich Nietzsche: Friedrich Nietzsche was a German philosopher, classicist, and cultural critic who criticized Western philosophy, religion, and morality, influencing 20th- century thought. His unique writing style, often aphoristic and poetic, popularized his ideas, including the "will to power." Nietzsche's controversial ideas, such as "slave morality," the declaration that "God is dead," and the concept of the "Übermensch," emphasized the importance of individual creativity and questioning established truths. Despite being misunderstood, his work has gained recognition for its depth and complexity, inspiring existentialist thinkers like Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus, as well as modern philosophers like Jacques Derrida and Michel Foucault. Jean-Paul Sartre: Jean-Paul Sartre was a French philosopher, novelist, and activist known for his contributions to existentialism and Marxism. He believed in the importance of achieving an authentic existence in a world shaped by oppressive social norms. Sartre's work, including Existentialism Is a Humanism and Critique of Dialectical Reason, emphasized the need for individuals to confront their freedom and ethical responsibilities. He advocated for national liberation movements in Algeria and Vietnam. Despite criticisms, Sartre's legacy lies in his ability to blend existentialist ideas with political activism, emphasizing individual freedom and the impact of social structures. His work continues to inspire discussions about identity, responsibility, and human existence in contemporary philosophy. Michel Foucault: Michel Foucault, a French historian, social theorist, and philosopher, was a key figure in the analysis of power and knowledge in relation to social control. He argued that power is a universal concept, originating from various sources and not just held by individuals or institutions. Foucault's concept of "bio- power" suggests that institutions like schools, prisons, and hospitals use surveillance and discipline to shape behavior and maintain social order. He believed that individuals are not merely repressed by social structures but are shaped by them, emphasizing the importance of understanding how power operates in everyday life. Foucault's ideas continue to influence discussions about social justice and human rights today. Chapter 4 Europe has produced numerous great writers, with the earliest literary great works dating back to Ancient Greece. Writers like Homer, Sophocles, Virgil, and Dante Alighieri contributed to the development of scholastic studies. Modern writers, from the Medieval to the 20th century, continue to carry this heritage, expressing religious, political, and methodological ideas in novels and poetry. Homer: Homer, a Greek blind poet, is credited with writing the Iliad and Odyssey, two foundational epic poems in Greek literature. These epics have profoundly influenced the development of written arts and culture. The Iliad is set during the Trojan War, a ten-year siege of Troy by Mycenaean Greek kingdoms. The war began when Trojan prince Paris kidnapped Queen Helen of Sparta. Menelaus, her husband, persuaded Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, to find her. The Trojans laid siege to Troy, demanding Helen's return. The Greek heroes, led by Odysseus, attacked Troy, and the Greek heroes returned home after the defeat. Helen returned to Sparta after her husbands' deaths, and some legends suggest she was exiled to Rhodes. Sophocles: Sophocles, born around 496 BCE, was a prominent playwright who significantly influenced the development of drama. He wrote over 120 plays, with Oedipus Rex being the most celebrated. Sophocles won numerous awards at the Dionysian festival, highlighting his status as one of the greatest playwrights of ancient Greece. His work has had a profound impact on literature and psychology, inspiring Sigmund Freud's concept of the Oedipus complex. Oedipus Rex, written around 429 BCE, is a tragedy that explores themes of fate, free will, and tragic flaws. The play begins with the city of Thebes suffering from a plague, and Oedipus, the king who saved the city from the Sphinx, vows to find the cause. He summons Tiresias, a blind prophet, to uncover the truth. As the investigation unfolds, Oedipus learns that he had unwittingly fulfilled a prophecy, killing his father Laius and marrying his mother Jocasta. Oedipus Rex is considered one of the greatest achievements in Greek tragedy and has had a lasting influence on Western literature and drama. Its enduring themes continue to resonate with audiences today, reinforcing its status as a cornerstone of literary history and psychological inquiry. Aristophanes: A Greek Athenian citizen who wrote during the era of the Peloponnesian War, Aristophanes’ work constitutes the greatest surviving body of ancient Greek comedies from one person. Still performed today, his most famous piece is probably Lysistrata. Virgil: Virgil, a Roman poet, is known for his epic poem, Aeneid, which tells the story of Trojan hero Aeneas and is a cornerstone of Roman cultural identity. Written between 29 and 19 BC, it combines themes of fate, duty, and divine intervention. Virgil's work is a foundational text in drama and epic storytelling, influencing future epics and dramas. His influence extends beyond his time, as his works were integral to Roman education and inspired countless writers, including Dante Alighieri. Dante Alighieri: Dante Alighieri, a renowned writer, philosopher, and political thinker, wrote The Divine Comedy, a renowned work in Italian literature. The poem, divided into three parts: Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso, explores the human soul's journey towards God and the afterlife. Its impact on cultural depictions of the afterlife and the Italian language as a literary medium cannot be overstated. The Divine Comedy provides an allegorical framework for understanding human existence and morality, illustrating the consequences of one's actions. Dante's decision to write in Italian marked a pivotal shift in literary tradition, making literature accessible to a broader audience and establishing the Tuscan dialect as the standardized Italian language. The poem's imaginative portrayal of the afterlife has shaped popular depictions of hell and heaven throughout history. Miguel de Cervantes: Miguel de Cervantes, a significant figure in Spanish literature, is known for his novel Don Quixote, often considered the first modern novel. Despite facing adversity, Cervantes made significant contributions to various genres, including novels, plays, poems, and short stories. Don Quixote follows Alonso Quijano, a middle-aged gentleman from La Mancha who becomes obsessed with chivalric romances. Inspired by these tales, he adopts the name Don Quixote and embarks on a quest to revive chivalry. The novel explores themes of illusion versus reality, and its rich characterizations and complex narrative structure have influenced modern storytelling techniques. Cervantes' exploration of themes such as identity, madness, and social critique continues to resonate with audiences today, making Don Quixote an enduring masterpiece. Voltaire: Voltaire, a French Enlightenment figure, was known for his wit and critiques of societal norms, particularly those surrounding religion and governance. He advocated for freedom of speech and the separation of church and state. His most celebrated work is Candide, a novella that critiques optimism and human suffering. Candide follows a naive young man, raised under Professor Pangloss, who faces war, natural disasters, and cruelty. He concludes that true happiness lies in practical engagement with life, not in philosophical speculation. Candide is significant in the history of drama and literature, as it uses humor and irony to expose the absurdity of philosophical doctrines that ignore human suffering. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe: Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, born in 1749 in Frankfurt, Germany, was a significant figure in German literature and Western thought. He was a poet, playwright, novelist, scientist, statesman, theatre director, and critic. His most notable work, "The Sorrows of Young Werther," sparked the "Werther Fever" and established him as a key figure in the Sturm und Drang literary movement. Goethe's impact on literature extends beyond his works, shaping the cultural landscape of his time. His exploration of individualism and emotional depth in "Werther" marked a significant evolution in drama and literature. Victor Hugo: Victor Hugo, a 19th-century French author, is best known for his novel Les Misérables, published in 1862. The novel explores human suffering, love, and redemption in early 19th-century France, focusing on Jean Valjean's journey from prison to redemption. The story is a powerful critique of societal injustices like poverty and child exploitation, and has influenced numerous adaptations in theater and film. Hugo's political beliefs evolved throughout his life, with his political beliefs evolving during his exile under Napoleon III. Les Misérables remains a literary masterpiece and a commentary on human rights and dignity throughout history. Fyodor Dostoyevsky: Fyodor Dostoevsky, a Russian author, was known for his exploration of philosophical and religious themes in 19th-century Russia. His works include Crime and Punishment, The Idiot, Demons, and The Brothers Karamazov. Dostoevsky's masterpiece, The Brothers Karamazov, is a murder mystery centered on Fyodor's death, focusing on morality, faith, and existential despair. The story explores the Karamazov family, with Dmitri representing hedonism, Ivan nihilism, and Alyosha resembling Christian existentialism. The Brothers Karamazov is a cornerstone in drama and literature, influencing writers and thinkers through its examination of themes like free will, guilt, and redemption. Leo Tolstoy: Born to wealthy aristocratic parents who died while he was still young, Tolstoy began his career in writing before serving in the Crimean War. After he this turned to a mixture of teaching and writing, creating what have been labeled two of the great novels in literature: War and Peace, set during the Napoleonic Wars and Anna Karenina. He has been considered a master of human observation, realist fiction and was well-known throughout his life for his moralistic views and opinions. Henrik Ibsen: Henrik Ibsen, a Norwegian writer and theatre director, is known as "the father of realism" and a creator of modernism in theatre. He is the most often produced dramatist globally, with A Doll's House being the most widely performed play in 2006. Ibsen's works, addressing societal issues and psychological concerns, appeal to modern readers. Despite the antiquated social themes and late-Victorian middle-class setting, his compelling power as a thinker and dramatist remains. Franz Kafka: Franz Kafka, a German-speaking Bohemian novelist and short-story writer, was born into a middle-class Jewish family in Prague. His works, translated into numerous languages, tackle various mental illnesses and embraced existentialism. Kafka's work is a blend of realism and fantastical aspects, often featuring isolated characters in surreal situations and socio- bureaucratic powers. His works often explore themes of alienation, existential anguish, guilt, and absurdity. His best-known works include The Metamorphosis and The Trial and The Castle. The term "Kafkaesque" is used to describe events similar to Kafka's.