PHILO-MIDTERMS PDF

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? -​ It is a profound discipline that explores fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, value, and reason. -​ It is to deepen our understanding of complex issues and improve our critical thinking skills -​ Individuals can clarify their beliefs, challenge assumptio...

WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? -​ It is a profound discipline that explores fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, value, and reason. -​ It is to deepen our understanding of complex issues and improve our critical thinking skills -​ Individuals can clarify their beliefs, challenge assumptions, and develop a more nuanced perspective on life. THE VALUE OF DOING PHILOSOPHY -​ The true worth of philosophy lies in its capacity to broaden our understanding and imagination even if it does not yield concrete answers. -​ Fosters a broad understanding that connects us with the larger world, ultimately enriching the mind and cultivating a sense of freedom and unity with the universe THE NATURE OF DOING PHILOSOPHY -​ Philosophy isn’t for definite answers but for more questions -​ All sciences came from philosophy -​ Compilation of answers that are yet to be studied Philos (love) + Sophia (wisdom) = Philosophia (lover of wisdom) -​ The constant pursuit of knowledge and wisdom -​ Values questions over definite answers SQUARE OF OPPOSITION Universal Affirmative (A) Universal Negative (E) -​ Pertains to ALL the items in the category (ALL) -​ Pertains to SOME items in the category (SOME -​ ALL STUDENTS ARE SMART ARE) -​ NO STUDENTS ARE SMART Particular Affirmative (I) Particular Negative (O) -​ Pertains to ALL the items in the category (EACH) -​ Pertains to SOME items in the category (SOME -​ SOME STUDENTS ARE SMART ARE NOT) -​ SOME STUDENTS ARE NOT SMART -​ If the universal is true, the particular is true -​ If the universal is false, the particular is doubtful TERM DEFINITION EXAMPLE Contradictory If one is true, the other is false A = True O = False Contrary One is True, Other is False A = True (always A & E) -​ Or - E = False One contrary is False, the Other is -​ Or - doubtful A = False E = Doubtful Sub-Contraries Subcontrary is True I = True (always I & O) Other is doubtful O = Doubtful -​ Or - -​ Or - Subcontrary is False I = False Other is True O = True Sub-alternation Universal is True, Then A = True Particular is True I = True -​ Or - -​ Or - Universal is False A = False Particular is Doubtful I = Doubtful  Particular is True I = True Universal is Doubtful A = Doubtful -​ Or - -​ Or - Particular is False I = False Universal is False A = False SYLLOGISM CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM A deductive argument is composed of 2 premises and one A syllogism is composed of categorical propositions with conclusion exactly 3 distinct terms Premise 1: Maria would attend the party if she were invited Premise 1: government officials are corrupt Premise 2: Maria attended the party Premise 2: Some men are government officials Conclusion: Therefore, she was invited Conclusion: Some men are corrupt A categorical syllogism is a syllogism in which all begins with the words all, no, some is, some is not and try to make an argument with that PARTS ​ MAJOR TERM ○​ Predicate term of the conclusion ○​ “MORTAL” ​ MINOR TERM ○​ Subject of the conclusion ○​ “GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS” ​ MIDDLE TERM ○​ Repeated term in the premise ○​ But not in the conclusion ○​ “MEN” ​ PREMISES ○​ Major Premise: premise that contains the major term ○​ Minor Premise: contains the minor term ○​ Conclusion : Minor + Major term RULES Only 3 terms in a syllogism (3 terms only) Middle term not included in conclusion Valid: Premise 1: government officials are corrupt Premise 2: Some men are government officials Conclusion: Some men are corrupt Term quantity cannot become greater in the conclusion Valid (some cannot become all) Premise 1: all dogs are animals Premise 2: some pets are dogs Conclusion: some pets are animals Invalid: Some students are athletes All athletes are disciplined All students are disciplined One premise must have one universally qualified middle Valid term Premise 1: All birds are animals. Premise 2: Some parrots are birds. One premise must have “all” Conclusion: Some parrots are animals. Invalid Premise 1: Some birds are animals. Premise 2: Some parrots are birds. Conclusion: Some parrots are animals. If one premise is negative, the conclusion is negative Valid Premise 1: No cats are dogs. Premise 2: All poodles are dogs. Conclusion: No poodles are cats. Invalid Premise 1: No reptiles are mammals. Premise 2: All snakes are reptiles. Conclusion: All snakes are mammals. If both premises are affirmative, then the conclusion is Valid affirmative Premise 1: All mammals are animals. Premise 2: All dogs are mammals. Conclusion: All dogs are animals. Invalid Premise 1: All flowers are plants. Premise 2: Some roses are flowers. Conclusion: Some roses are not plants. One premise must be universal Valid Premise 1: All birds are animals. Premise 2: Some sparrows are birds. Conclusion: Some sparrows are animals. Invalid Premise 1: Some dogs are friendly. Premise 2: Some cats are friendly. Conclusion: Some cats are dogs. If one premise is particular, conclusion is particular Valid Premise 1: All mammals are animals. Premise 2: Some cats are mammals. Conclusion: Some cats are animals. Invalid Premise 1: All birds are animals.  Premise 2: Some sparrows are birds. Conclusion: All sparrows are animals. Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3: Figure 4: All men are mortal All depressed people are All philosophers are critical All businessmen are smart suffering mental health thinkers people All government officials are issues men Some philosophers are good All smart people are faithful No healthy person is persons people All government officials are suffering mental health mortal issues Some good persons are All faithful people are critical thinkers businessmen No healthy person is depressed FALLACIES UNDISTRIBUTED MIDDLE TERM: ILLICIT MAJOR ILLICIT MINOR The middle term is not fully used in either of the premises Example of Illicit Major: Example of Invalid: Premise: All girls are human 1.​ Premise 1: All cats are animals. Premise: All boys are human 2.​ Premise 2: All pets are cats. Therefore: All girls are boys 3.​ Conclusion: Therefore, all pets are animals. Example of Valid Example of Illicit Minor: Premise 1: All cats are mammals. Premise 2: All mammals are animals. 1.​ Premise 1: All cats are animals. Conclusion: Therefore, all cats are animals 2.​ Premise 2: All cats are pets. 3.​ Conclusion: Therefore, all pets are animals. Illicit Major: Major term is incorrectly distributed in the conclusion without being distributed in the major premise. Illicit Minor: Minor term is incorrectly distributed in the conclusion without being distributed in the minor premise EXCLUSIVE PREMISES LOSING THE NEGATIVE  When both premises are negative Invalid ​ Drawing an affirmative conclusion from a negative Premise: no cats are dogs premise Premise: no dogs are pets ​ Drawing a negative conclusion from an affirmative Conclusion: no cats are pets premise Valid Premise: All cats are animals Premise: No dogs are cats Conclusion: No dogs are animals EXISTENTIAL FALLACY Premise 1: All answered prayers come from a god. Conclusion: Therefore, some answered prayers come from a god. HUMAN PHILOSOPHY OPINIONS, FACTS, TRUTH OPINION FACTS TRUTH Personal claim, belief, or Objective and well-supported Neither an opinion nor a personal stance on a topic by available evidence fact. It is universally undisputed and accepted. TYPES OF TRUTH ​ ONTOLOGICAL [ THE WORLD ] ○​ About the way things are in the world ​ PROPOSITIONAL [ CONCEPTS ] ○​ Relationship between concepts and ideas INFERENCES DEFINITION: an idea or conclusion drawn from evidence or reasoning DEDUCTIVE: arrived by focusing on the argument structure Valid: if it is impossible for the conclusion to be false when the premises are assumed to be true Premise: either the student passes the exam or they retake the class Premise: the student did not retake the class Conclusion: the student passed the exam INVALID a.​ Affirming the consequent If it rains the courtyard will be wet -> the courtyard is wet -> it rained (FALSE) b.​ Denying the antecedent If a student studies, they will pass -> the student did not study -> the student will not pass (FALSE) INDUCTIVE: gather evidence through experience and draw general conclusions based on these experiences a.​ SPECIFIC TO GENERALITIES: several students in class studied for the exam and received high grades. Therefore, it is likely that students who study will perform better in exams b.​ GENERALITIES TO SPECIFIC: a student who consistently attends class performs better. Therefore, anya who has  perfect attendance is likely to do well in her exams c.​ PAST TO FUTURE: the schools graduation ceremony is always held in march. Therefore, this years graduation will be in march ABDUCTIVE: the conclusion is meant to explain and justify the premises Ex. the projector stopped working during a lesson even though it was working earlier EXPLANATION: the projector might have overheated after extended use INFERENCE: the best explanation for the malfunction is that the projector may have overheated due to being used for a long time. FALLACY -​ ERROR or mistake in reasoning FORMAL FALLACIES INFORMAL FALLACIES / MATERIAL FALLACY Errors due solely to an incorrect form or structure of an Errors in reasoning due to a defect in the content of an argument. argument Thus, invalid arguments Usually psychologically persuasive FALLACIES OF AMBIGUITY Equivocation Several meanings of a word is presented in The teacher asks the students to prepare their report one argument presentations. Students start wrapping gifts Composition What is true to its part is true to the whole All students are smart so they will have the best group presentation Division What is true to a whole is true to its part The class won intrams so everyone is athletic False Analogy 2 things being compared illogically Diamonds are formed under pressure so we must be pressure FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE Argument from ignorance Something is true just because it I don’t cheat cos i never got caught isn’t false Appeal to inappropriate Expert from one field to support He should be a senator because he’s a great actor authority another field Appeal to person Attack to the person who argues You can’t be correct because you’re always sleeping in instead of addressing the class argument itself  Appeal to pity Appeals to pity to make it Please give me a passing score because i’ll get scolded if i acceptable don’t Appeal to popular will True because many people do it Everyone vapes so I should too Appeal to force Uses force to persuade If you don’t help me I’ll tell everyone who your crush is Straw man Distracts from the argument by I think we should have less homework attacking a distorted version of it Oh so you just wanna play all-day Red herring Introducing irrelevant point I did not finish my work because students were noisy FALLACIES OF PRESUMPTION Complex question Asks a question that assumes Have u stopped vaping? something False cause Assumes that just because one I failed because I didn’t wear green event happened, this caused it Begging the question Restating premises without proof Why is the math hw hard? Because its hard Accident Applies a general rule where it You weren’t supposed to skip class even if you were should not apply rushed to the ER Hasty generalization Conclusions based on too many The first 2 questions were easy so it’s all easy examples or incomplete evidence False Dichotomy Assumed only 2 choices exist You’re either gay or homophobic Slippery Slope Assumes that a small action will If we miss one day of school, they’ll cancel school for lead to big consequences every rainstorm and we will never graduate. EMBODIED SPIRIT -​ Inseparable union of the body and the soul (the soul is made physical) SOUL -​ Implies immortality -​ You either go to heaven, hell, or purgatory when you die -​ Only humans have a soul -​ Has the ability to transcend if it has a body BODY -​ Physical features PLATO Body and soul are 2 distinct components of a human The body is material and corruptible, a prison for the soul The soul is immortal, nonphysical, and the essence of a person. It pre-exists the body and returns to heaven, hell, or purgatory after death ARISTOTLE The body and soul form a unity where the body is a material aspect of a living being The soul is a form of essence of the body, giving it life and purpose. A soul cannot exist without body Unification of the body (matter) and soul (form)  AUGUSTINE The body is good but it is weakened by sin and earthly desires. Distinct from the soul. The soul is immortal, rational, and capable of knowing God. it governs the body and is responsible for moral decisions. THOMAS AQUINAS The body is an integral part of human nature. It is material but works together with the soul. The soul is the form of the body, making it alive. It is rational, immortal, and continues to exist after the death of the body RENE DESCARTES The body is a machine, a material entity separate from the mind/soul The soul is distinct from the body, a thinking substance that defines a person The soul is immaterial and immortal Body and soul are 2 substances. The soul is a thinking entity MAURICE MERLEUA The body is not just a physical entity, it is our primary means of experiencing and interacting with the PONTY world The soul is intertwined with the body and can’t be separated. Consciousness and perception are embodied in a physical form. The body and soul are inseparable with the body being essential for experiencing the world HUMAN PERSON AND FREEDOM FREEDOM -​ Does not refer to obtaining what one wishes for but to determining oneself to wish -​ A person cannot escape freedom -​ The power or right to act, speak, or think without hindrance of restraint FREE WILL -​ Action from judgment arising from reason -​ Man acts from free judgment -​ People make choices based on their own decisions and opinions -​ The ability to make choices that are not determined by prior cause or divine intervention HUMAN ACT -​ Actions done consciously and freely -​ Consulted by knowledge, freedom, and voluntariness -​ Actions that are deliberate and involve choice Knowledge: awareness Freedom: without restriction Voluntariness: willfully ACT OF MAN -​ Occur without conscious deliberation or choice