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Questions and Answers
Which of the following best describes the primary value that philosophy places on inquiry?
Which of the following best describes the primary value that philosophy places on inquiry?
- Prioritizing the pursuit of questions over definitive answers. (correct)
- Establishing universally accepted moral codes.
- Achieving a complete and final understanding of reality.
- Finding concrete solutions to societal problems.
In the square of opposition, if the statement 'All artists are creative' is true, what can be inferred about the statement 'Some artists are creative'?
In the square of opposition, if the statement 'All artists are creative' is true, what can be inferred about the statement 'Some artists are creative'?
- Its truth value is independent of the original statement.
- It is doubtful.
- It is false.
- It is true. (correct)
Given that 'No politicians are honest' is true, what is the truth value of 'Some politicians are not honest' according to the square of opposition?
Given that 'No politicians are honest' is true, what is the truth value of 'Some politicians are not honest' according to the square of opposition?
- True (correct)
- Cannot be determined
- Doubtful
- False
Consider the statements:
I: Some teachers are not strict.
O: Some teachers are strict.
According to the square of opposition, what is the relationship between these two statements?
Consider the statements:
I: Some teachers are not strict. O: Some teachers are strict.
According to the square of opposition, what is the relationship between these two statements?
In a categorical syllogism, which term is found in both premises but not in the conclusion?
In a categorical syllogism, which term is found in both premises but not in the conclusion?
Determine if the following syllogism is valid:
Premise 1: All roses are flowers.
Premise 2: Some plants are roses.
Conclusion: Therefore, all plants are flowers.
Determine if the following syllogism is valid:
Premise 1: All roses are flowers. Premise 2: Some plants are roses. Conclusion: Therefore, all plants are flowers.
Identify the major term in the following syllogism:
Premise 1: All mammals are warm-blooded.
Premise 2: All dogs are mammals.
Conclusion: Therefore, all dogs are warm-blooded.
Identify the major term in the following syllogism:
Premise 1: All mammals are warm-blooded. Premise 2: All dogs are mammals. Conclusion: Therefore, all dogs are warm-blooded.
Which of the following best exemplifies the fallacy of composition?
Which of the following best exemplifies the fallacy of composition?
In a debate about climate change, a politician states, 'My opponent believes we should let the economy collapse to address environmental concerns.' This statement is an example of which fallacy?
In a debate about climate change, a politician states, 'My opponent believes we should let the economy collapse to address environmental concerns.' This statement is an example of which fallacy?
A commercial features a famous athlete endorsing a brand of cereal. This is an example of which type of fallacy?
A commercial features a famous athlete endorsing a brand of cereal. This is an example of which type of fallacy?
During a trial, a lawyer argues that the defendant should not be found guilty because he had a difficult childhood. This is an example of which fallacy?
During a trial, a lawyer argues that the defendant should not be found guilty because he had a difficult childhood. This is an example of which fallacy?
A detective asks a suspect, 'Have you stopped robbing banks?' regardless of whether the suspect has ever robbed a bank. This is an example of what type of fallacy?
A detective asks a suspect, 'Have you stopped robbing banks?' regardless of whether the suspect has ever robbed a bank. This is an example of what type of fallacy?
Which of the following syllogisms is invalid because it draws a universal conclusion from a particular premise?
Which of the following syllogisms is invalid because it draws a universal conclusion from a particular premise?
Given the premises 'No reptiles are mammals' and 'All snakes are reptiles', which conclusion would create a valid syllogism?
Given the premises 'No reptiles are mammals' and 'All snakes are reptiles', which conclusion would create a valid syllogism?
Which of the following syllogisms is valid, adhering to the rule that if one premise is negative, the conclusion must also be negative?
Which of the following syllogisms is valid, adhering to the rule that if one premise is negative, the conclusion must also be negative?
Which of the following exemplifies an invalid syllogism where both premises are affirmative, yet the conclusion is negative?
Which of the following exemplifies an invalid syllogism where both premises are affirmative, yet the conclusion is negative?
Identify the syllogism that correctly follows the rule that if one premise is particular, the conclusion must also be particular.
Identify the syllogism that correctly follows the rule that if one premise is particular, the conclusion must also be particular.
Which of the following syllogisms is invalid because it violates the rule that at least one premise must be universal?
Which of the following syllogisms is invalid because it violates the rule that at least one premise must be universal?
In a valid syllogism, if you have the premises 'All mammals are animals' and 'Some cats are mammals,' what conclusion can you draw?
In a valid syllogism, if you have the premises 'All mammals are animals' and 'Some cats are mammals,' what conclusion can you draw?
Given the premises 'All birds are animals' and 'Some sparrows are birds,' which of the following conclusions results in a valid syllogism?
Given the premises 'All birds are animals' and 'Some sparrows are birds,' which of the following conclusions results in a valid syllogism?
Which of these syllogisms is structured such that it might lead to an ecological fallacy?
Which of these syllogisms is structured such that it might lead to an ecological fallacy?
In Figure 1, which logical conclusion can be validly drawn from the premises 'All men are mortal' and 'All government officials are men'?
In Figure 1, which logical conclusion can be validly drawn from the premises 'All men are mortal' and 'All government officials are men'?
Figure 2 presents the statements: 'All depressed people are suffering mental health issues,' and 'No healthy person is suffering mental health issues.' Which conclusion is logically valid?
Figure 2 presents the statements: 'All depressed people are suffering mental health issues,' and 'No healthy person is suffering mental health issues.' Which conclusion is logically valid?
Figure 3 states 'All philosophers are critical thinkers' and 'Some philosophers are good persons'. If we also know that 'Some good persons are critical thinkers,' from these premises, what can we determine?
Figure 3 states 'All philosophers are critical thinkers' and 'Some philosophers are good persons'. If we also know that 'Some good persons are critical thinkers,' from these premises, what can we determine?
In Figure 4, the statements are: 'All businessmen are smart people,' 'All smart people are faithful people,' and 'All faithful people are businessmen.' What is the logical relationship between businessmen and faithful people?
In Figure 4, the statements are: 'All businessmen are smart people,' 'All smart people are faithful people,' and 'All faithful people are businessmen.' What is the logical relationship between businessmen and faithful people?
Which of the following best describes the 'undistributed middle term' fallacy?
Which of the following best describes the 'undistributed middle term' fallacy?
In the context of logical fallacies, what is the key characteristic of an 'illicit major' fallacy?
In the context of logical fallacies, what is the key characteristic of an 'illicit major' fallacy?
How does an 'illicit minor' fallacy manifest in a syllogistic argument?
How does an 'illicit minor' fallacy manifest in a syllogistic argument?
Consider the argument: 'All artists are creative. Some teachers are not artists. Therefore, some teachers are not creative.' What type of fallacy is present, if any?
Consider the argument: 'All artists are creative. Some teachers are not artists. Therefore, some teachers are not creative.' What type of fallacy is present, if any?
Identify the fallacy in the following argument: 'All squares are rectangles. All rectangles are parallelograms. Therefore, all parallelograms are squares.'
Identify the fallacy in the following argument: 'All squares are rectangles. All rectangles are parallelograms. Therefore, all parallelograms are squares.'
Given the premises: 'All dogs are mammals' and 'All dogs are pets,' what fallacy occurs if we conclude: 'Therefore, all pets are mammals'?
Given the premises: 'All dogs are mammals' and 'All dogs are pets,' what fallacy occurs if we conclude: 'Therefore, all pets are mammals'?
Which type of truth is concerned with the relationship between concepts and ideas?
Which type of truth is concerned with the relationship between concepts and ideas?
In deductive reasoning, what term describes the scenario where it's impossible for the conclusion to be false if the premises are true?
In deductive reasoning, what term describes the scenario where it's impossible for the conclusion to be false if the premises are true?
Which of the following best illustrates the fallacy of 'affirming the consequent'?
Which of the following best illustrates the fallacy of 'affirming the consequent'?
What type of inference is exemplified by observing that several successful entrepreneurs attended a specific university and concluding that attending this university increases the likelihood of entrepreneurial success?
What type of inference is exemplified by observing that several successful entrepreneurs attended a specific university and concluding that attending this university increases the likelihood of entrepreneurial success?
Which scenario demonstrates abductive reasoning?
Which scenario demonstrates abductive reasoning?
If the premises are: 'All squares have four sides' and 'This shape has four sides', and the conclusion is: 'Therefore, this shape is a square,' what type of fallacy is being committed?
If the premises are: 'All squares have four sides' and 'This shape has four sides', and the conclusion is: 'Therefore, this shape is a square,' what type of fallacy is being committed?
What type of fallacy occurs due to an error in the structure of the argument, making the conclusion invalid regardless of the truth of the premises?
What type of fallacy occurs due to an error in the structure of the argument, making the conclusion invalid regardless of the truth of the premises?
Which of the following represents an argument using inductive reasoning?
Which of the following represents an argument using inductive reasoning?
Given the premise: 'If a student attends all lectures, they will likely pass the course,' what fallacy is committed if one argues: 'This student did not attend all lectures, therefore they will not pass the course'?
Given the premise: 'If a student attends all lectures, they will likely pass the course,' what fallacy is committed if one argues: 'This student did not attend all lectures, therefore they will not pass the course'?
Which of the following is an example of ontological truth?
Which of the following is an example of ontological truth?
Flashcards
Philosophy
Philosophy
The constant pursuit of knowledge and wisdom, valuing questions over definite answers.
Universal Affirmative (A)
Universal Affirmative (A)
Pertains to ALL items in a category, asserting a positive attribute.
Universal Negative (E)
Universal Negative (E)
Pertains to ALL items in a catergory, denying a positive attribute.
Particular Affirmative (I)
Particular Affirmative (I)
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Particular Negative (O)
Particular Negative (O)
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Syllogism
Syllogism
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Major Term
Major Term
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Syllogism Requirement: 'All'
Syllogism Requirement: 'All'
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Negative Premise Rule
Negative Premise Rule
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Affirmative Premise Rule
Affirmative Premise Rule
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Universal Premise Rule
Universal Premise Rule
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Particular Premise Rule
Particular Premise Rule
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Valid Syllogism Example 1 (Conclusion)
Valid Syllogism Example 1 (Conclusion)
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Valid Syllogism Example 2 (Conclusion)
Valid Syllogism Example 2 (Conclusion)
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Example of a Valid Conclusion
Example of a Valid Conclusion
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Example of a Valid Premise
Example of a Valid Premise
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Undistributed Middle Term
Undistributed Middle Term
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Illicit Major
Illicit Major
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Illicit Minor
Illicit Minor
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Middle Term
Middle Term
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Major Premise
Major Premise
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Minor Premise
Minor Premise
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Conclusion
Conclusion
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Invalid Argument (Fallacy)
Invalid Argument (Fallacy)
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Equivocation Fallacy
Equivocation Fallacy
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Composition Fallacy
Composition Fallacy
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Division Fallacy
Division Fallacy
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Ad Hominem (Appeal to Person)
Ad Hominem (Appeal to Person)
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Ontological Truth
Ontological Truth
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Propositional Truth
Propositional Truth
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Inference
Inference
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Deductive Inference
Deductive Inference
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Inductive Inference
Inductive Inference
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Abductive Inference
Abductive Inference
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Fallacy
Fallacy
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Formal Fallacy
Formal Fallacy
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Informal Fallacy
Informal Fallacy
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Affirming the Consequent
Affirming the Consequent
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Study Notes
- Philosophy explores existence, knowledge, value, and reason through fundamental questions.
- Philosophy deepens understanding of complex issues and improves critical thinking.
- Philosophy helps individuals clarify beliefs, challenge assumptions, and develop nuanced perspectives.
- The true value of philosophy broadens understanding and imagination, cultivating a sense of freedom and unity with the universe.
- Philosophy fosters broad understanding and connects individuals with the larger world.
- The nature of philosophy involves valuing questions over definite answers.
- It represents a constant pursuit of knowledge and wisdom.
- All sciences originated from philosophy.
- Philosophy is a compilation of answers that are yet to be studied, with "philosophia" meaning "lover of wisdom" (Philos + Sophia).
Square of Opposition
- Universal Affirmative (A) pertains to all items in a category; example: "ALL STUDENTS ARE SMART."
- Universal Negative (E) pertains to no items in a category; example: "NO STUDENTS ARE SMART."
- Particular Affirmative (I) pertains to some items in a category; example: "SOME STUDENTS ARE SMART."
- Particular Negative (O) pertains to some items in a category that are not; example: "SOME STUDENTS ARE NOT SMART."
- If a universal statement is true, the particular statement is also true.
- If a universal statement is false, the particular statement is doubtful.
Logical Relationships
- Contradictory terms: If one is true, the other is false.
- Contrary terms (always A & E): One is true and the other is false, or if one is false, the other is doubtful.
- Sub-contraries (always I & O): If one is true, the other is doubtful; if one is false, the other is true.
- Sub-alternation: If a universal statement is true, then a particular statement is true; if a universal statement is false, then a particular statement is doubtful.
Syllogisms
- A deductive argument is composed of 2 premises and a conclusion. Example: Premise 1: Maria would attend the party if she were invited. Premise 2: Maria attended the party. Conclusion: Therefore, she was invited.
Categorical Syllogisms
- A syllogism composed of categorical propositions has exactly 3 distinct terms. Example: Premise 1: Government officials are corrupt. Premise 2: Some men are government officials. Conclusion: Some men are corrupt.
Syllogism Components
- Major Term: The predicate term of the conclusion, for example "MORTAL."
- Minor Term: The subject of the conclusion, for example "GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS."
- Middle Term: The repeated term in the premises but not in the conclusion, for example "MEN."
- Major Premise: Contains the major term.
- Minor Premise: Contains the Minor term.
- Conclusion: Combines the minor and major terms.
- Only 3 terms should be present within an argument
- The middle term is not in the conclusion.
- Term quantity cannot become greater in the conclusion.
Rules of Syllogisms
- A premise must have one universally qualified middle term.
- One premise needs to have "all".
- If one premise is negative, the conclusion needs to be negative.
- If both premises are affirmative, the conclusion is affirmative.
- One premise must be universal.
- If one premise is particular, the conclusion is particular.
Fallacies
Undistributed Middle Term
- The middle term is not fully used in the premises.
Illicit Major/Minor
- Illicit Major: The major term is incorrectly distributed in the conclusion without being distributed in the major premise.
- Illicit Minor: The minor term is incorrectly distributed in the conclusion without being distributed in the minor premise.
- Drawing an affirmative conclusion from a negative premise is a fallacy
- Drawing a negative conclusion from an affirmative premise is a fallacy
Existential Fallacy
- The conclusion relies on the existence of something that was not assumed in the premise.
Human Philosophy
- Opinion: A personal claim, belief, or personal stance on a topic.
- Fact: Something objective and well-supported by available evidence.
- Truth: Something neither an opinion nor a fact, universally undisputed and accepted.
Types of Truth
- Ontological Truth: About the way things are in the world.
- Propositional Truth: Relationship between concepts and ideas.
Inferences
- An idea or conclusion drawn from evidence or reasoning.
Deductive Inference
- Arrived at by focusing on the argument structure.
- Valid: It is impossible for the conclusion to be false when the premises are assumed to be true.
Inductive Inference
- Requires gathering evidence through experience and drawing general conclusions based on these experiences.
- Specific to Generalities: Several students in class studied for the exam and received high grades; therefore, it is likely students who study will perform better on exams.
- Generalities to Specific: A student who consistently attends class performs better; therefore, Anya, who has perfect attendance, is likely to do well on her exams.
- Past To Future: The schools graduation ceremony is always held in March. Therefore, this year’s graduation will be in March.
Abductive Inference
- The conclusion is meant to explain and justify the premises.
Fallacies
- An error or mistake in reasoning.
Formal Fallacies
- Occur due solely to an incorrect form or structure of an argument.
- Invalid arguments.
Informal Fallacies/Material Fallacy
- Errors in reasoning due to a defect in the content of an argument.
- Usually psychologically persuasive.
Fallacies of Ambiguity
- Brought by the occurrence of ambiguous terms.
- Fallacy of Equivocation: Several meanings of a word are presented in 1 argument.
- Fallacy of Composition: Concluding what is true of the part is true of the whole.
- Fallacy of Division: Concluding what is true of the whole is true of the part.
- Fallacy of False Analogy: Comparing 2 things illogically.
Fallacies of Relevance
- Fallacies arise from the occurrence of irrelevant premises.
- Argument from ignorance.
- Appeal to inappropriate authority.
- Appeal to person.
- Appeal to pity.
- Appeal to popular will.
- Appeal to force.
- Straw man.
- Red herring.
Fallacies of Presumption
- Fallacies arise because they base on expressions and assumptions that may be considered questionable.
- Complex question.
- False cause.
- Begging the question.
- Accident.
- Hasty generalization.
- False dichotomy.
- Slippery Slope.
Embodied Spirit
- Inseparable union of the body and the soul (the soul is made physical).
Soul
- Implies immortality.
- Humans have a soul.
- Soul can transcend if it has a body.
Body
- Physical features.
Plato
- Body and soul are 2 distinct parts of a human.
- Body is material and corruptible, a prison for the soul.
- Soul is immortal, pre-exists the body, returns to heaven & purgatory when it dies.
Aristotle
- The body and soul form a unity where the body is a material aspect of a living thing.
- Soul giving the body its purpose and meaning.
- The soul is of essence to the body, so it cannot exist without it.
Augustine
- Body distinct from the soul
- Sin and earthly desires weaken the body
Thomas Aquinas
- Body and and soul work together
- Body is an crucial piece of the human experience
- Soul gives form to the body
Rene Descartes
- Body is just a machine
- Body and soul is are 2 separate substances
- Soul gives a person the ability to think
Maurice Merleau-Ponty
- Body gives the soul a way to interact with the world
- They cannot be separated as consciousness and perception are embodied in physical form.
- The body and soul are inseparable with the body being essential for experiencing the world
Freedom
- Does not refer to obtaining what one wishes for but to determining oneself to wish
- A person cannot escape freedom
- Power or right to act, speak, or think without restraint
Free Will
- Judgement of the acts
- Decisions from personal choice
- Not determined by prior cause
Human Act
- Actions intentionally done
- Performed with voluntariness, freedom, and knowledge.
Act of Man
- An act without conscious thought
- No choices made
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