PHIL 100 Exam 1 Study Guide

PHIL 100 Exam 1 Study Guide **1. Two Ways Hume Argued We Can Arrive at Certain Knowledge** - **Relations of Ideas**: Propositions that are true by definition and can be known through logical analysis; describes deductive reasoning - **Matters of Fact**: Knowledge derived from the relation...

PHIL 100 Exam 1 Study Guide **1. Two Ways Hume Argued We Can Arrive at Certain Knowledge** - **Relations of Ideas**: Propositions that are true by definition and can be known through logical analysis; describes deductive reasoning - **Matters of Fact**: Knowledge derived from the relationships between ideas; describes observation and our predictions about the future. **2. Direct vs. Indirect Passions (Hume)** - **Direct passions**: Emotions directly related to our immediate experiences (e.g., love, hatred). - **Indirect passions**: Emotions that arise from reflecting on or interpreting our experiences (e.g., pride, humility). **3. Bertrand Russell on the Value of Philosophy** - Philosophical knowledge "gives unity and system to the body of the sciences.", encourages critical thinking, and opens the mind to a liberating range of new possibilities to explore **4. What Makes an Argument Deductively Valid?** - An argument is **deductively valid** if the conclusion logically follows from the premises. In other words, if the premises are true, the conclusion must be true. **Soundness**: An argument is **sound** if it is both valid and all of its premises are actually true. **5. When a Conclusion Relies on the Definition of a Concept** - This is called a **deductive definition** or **analytic argument**. The conclusion is simply a restatement or logical consequence of the concept defined in the premise. **6. Hume on Cause and Effect** - Hume argued that we cannot directly observe cause and effect. We only observe events happening together in a regular sequence, leading us to form the assumption of causality. Our belief in cause and effect is based on habit, not reason or direct observation. His Assumptions about Causality (Cause & Effect) cannot be grounded by the Relations of Ideas or the Matters of Fact. To Hume, the concept of Causality (Cause & Effect) is neither real nor true. **7. Leibniz's Conclusion in \"The Best of All Possible Worlds\"** - Leibniz concluded that the world we live in is the best possible one, as it balances the greatest amount of good with the least amount of evil. This was part of his argument for a rational, benevolent creator. **8. William Paley on a Law of Nature and Efficient Cause** - Paley argued that a law of nature (e.g., gravity) cannot itself be an efficient cause because it merely describes how things behave, not why they behave that way. An efficient cause must explain why something happens or why something exists. **9. William James on Live vs. Dead Hypotheses** - James suggested that whether a hypothesis is "live" or "dead" depends on the personal relevance or possibility of the hypothesis for the person considering it. A live hypothesis is one that a person can genuinely consider as a possible truth. **10. Pascal's Wager and a Live Option for Pascal** - James thought Pascal's Wager was a **live option** for Pascal because Pascal had a personal stake in the possibility of belief in God. For Pascal, the wager was meaningful because of his personal circumstances, unlike for someone who already firmly rejects theism. **11. Formal vs. Informal Fallacy** - **Formal fallacy**: A flaw in the structure or logical form of an argument (e.g., affirming the consequent). - **Informal fallacy**: A flaw in the content or reasoning of the argument, often due to incorrect assumptions or irrelevant premises (e.g., ad hominem attacks). **12. Nozick's Fundamental Value Against the Experience Machine** - Nozick argued that people value **authenticity** and **reality** over mere pleasurable experiences. The idea of living in an experience machine, where pleasure is artificially generated, would not satisfy most people because they desire real accomplishments, challenges, and connections. **13. Descartes' Most Significant Conclusion on Certain Knowledge** - Descartes concluded that **reason** (especially through methodical doubt) was the only true source of certain knowledge, famously stating \"Cogito, ergo sum\" (I think, therefore I am), where thinking itself proves one's existence. **14. Why Descartes is Certain of His Own Existence Despite Radical Skepticism** - Descartes is certain of his existence because, even in doubting everything else, he cannot doubt that he is doubting. His ability to think and doubt proves that he exists, making his existence certain.