Philosophy Exam 2 Study Guide PDF

PHILOSOPHY EXAM 2 STUDY GUIDE I. First Cause Argument & Argument from Design First Cause Argument: Asserts everything that begins to exist has a cause. There must be a first uncaused cause (often identified as God). Reformulated Premise: Only things that begin to exist require...

PHILOSOPHY EXAM 2 STUDY GUIDE I. First Cause Argument & Argument from Design First Cause Argument: Asserts everything that begins to exist has a cause. There must be a first uncaused cause (often identified as God). Reformulated Premise: Only things that begin to exist require a cause. Helps avoid the problem of infinite regress. Infinite Regress: Seems unreasonable as it lacks an ultimate explanation. Explanation & Causation: Explanation often depends on identifying causes—essential for the argument's strength. Argument from Design Two Versions: 1. Analogy Version: Universe is like a machine → requires a designer. 2. Best Explanation Version: Complexity of the universe best explained by a designer. Weaknesses: o Analogy: Universe not machine-like enough. o Best Explanation: Evolution/natural selection is a better alternative. Philo’s Critique: Undermines the analogy (universe doesn’t resemble machines closely). Even accepting analogy, it leads to questionable conclusions (imperfect or multiple gods). Machine-like Universe & Creator: Both being mechanistic could challenge divine perfection. Paley’s Limitation: Lacked knowledge of evolution, which offers a naturalistic explanation. II. Evil and God Problem of Evil: How can evil exist if God is all-powerful, all-knowing, and all-good? 3-O God: Omnipotent, Omniscient, Omnibenevolent. Types of Evil: o Moral Evil: Human-caused. o Natural Evil: Nature-caused (e.g., earthquakes). Mackie’s Arguments: Challenges logical consistency of evil with 3-O God. Refutes solutions like evil being necessary for good, or evil being a counterpart to good. Free Will Defense: Evil results from God allowing humans to choose freely. Mackie’s Objection: God could have created free beings who always choose good. Types of Freedom (Mackie): o First-order: Freedom to act. o Second-order: Freedom to choose desires. Swinburne’s View: Emphasizes responsible freedom. Natural evil allows for meaningful moral choices. Criticism: Still doesn’t fully remove divine responsibility for suffering. III. Ethics of Belief Prudential Reasons: Based on benefit. Evidential Reasons: Based on evidence. Pascal’s Wager: Belief in God is a rational “bet” due to infinite gain if true. Objections: o Multiple possible gods. o Can belief be genuine if motivated by reward? Miracles (Blackburn & Hume): Two options: Believe miracle happened, or believe testimony is wrong. Both are surprising, but miracles violate nature’s regularities. More rational to doubt the testimony. Implication: Testimony alone isn’t enough to justify belief in miracles. IV. Key Concepts from Exam 1 (Review) A. Plato & Aristotle  A Priori vs. A Posteriori: Known by reason vs. known by experience. Normative vs. Descriptive: What should be vs. what is. Plato’s Knowledge: Justified True Belief. Aristotle’s Issue: Plato's definition is incomplete. Foundational Beliefs (Aristotle): o Self-evident truths. o Sensory experiences. B. Descartes Method of Doubt: Doubt everything not absolutely certain. Clear & Distinct Perception: Basis for truth. Skeptical Hypotheses: Dream argument, evil demon. Most Powerful Argument: Evil demon hypothesis. Rationalism vs. Empiricism: o Rationalism: Knowledge through reason. o Empiricism: Knowledge through senses. Veil of Ideas: We perceive mental representations, not the world directly. Wax Argument: Perception of wax is known through intellect, not senses. External World Proof: Based on God’s perfection. Cartesian Circle: Uses God to prove reason, but only knows God via reason. C. Locke Ideas vs. Qualities: o Primary Qualities: Objective (shape, size). o Secondary Qualities: Subjective (color, taste). Justification: Primary qualities match reality; secondary do not. Sensory Experience (4 Facts): 1. Vivid 2. Involuntary 3. Coherent 4. Systematic Causal Theory of Perception: External objects cause our sensory experiences. Best Explanation Principle: Simpler, more coherent explanations are preferred. D. Hume Impressions vs. Ideas: Impressions are stronger, more immediate. Conceptual Empiricism: All ideas come from impressions.  Two Kinds of Knowledge: o Relations of Ideas: A priori (e.g., math). o Matters of Fact: A posteriori. Causation (4 Elements): 1. Priority in time 2. Contiguity 3. Constant conjunction 4. Necessary connection Causation Problem: o Not knowable a priori or a posteriori. Deductive vs. Inductive: o Deductive: Certain conclusions. o Inductive: Probable conclusions. Problem of Induction: o No justification for why future resembles the past. o Neither deduction nor induction can justify itself. o Counter-induction reveals the problem’s circularity. Hume’s Skeptical Solution: We rely on induction due to habit, not logic.