PERDEV Notes PDF - Self-Concept, Personality Traits, Adolescence

Module 1: Knowing Oneself Self-Concept It refers to how someone thinks about, evaluates, or perceives themselves. To be aware of oneself is to have a concept of oneself. Baumeister (1999) provides the following self-concept definition: The individual’s belief about himself or herself, including th...

Module 1: Knowing Oneself Self-Concept It refers to how someone thinks about, evaluates, or perceives themselves. To be aware of oneself is to have a concept of oneself. Baumeister (1999) provides the following self-concept definition: The individual’s belief about himself or herself, including the person's attributes and who and what the self is.” Carl Rogers (1959) believes that the self-concept has three different components: -​ The view you have of yourself (self-image) -​ How much value you place on yourself (self-esteem or self-worth) -​ What you wish you were really like (ideal self) Self-Image (how you see yourself) This does not necessarily have to reflect reality. Indeed, a person with anorexia who is thin may have a self-image in which the person believes they are fat. A person’s self-image is affected by many factors, such as parental influences, friends, the media, etc. Self-Esteem (the extent to which you value yourself) Self-esteem (also known as self-worth) refers to the extent to which we like, accept, or approve of ourselves or how much we value ourselves. Self-esteem always involves a degree of evaluation, and we may have either a positive or a negative view of ourselves. -​ High Self-Esteem (we have a positive view of ourselves) This tends to lead to: ​ Confidence in our abilities ​ Self-acceptance ​ Not worrying about what others think ​ Optimism -​ Low Self-Esteem (we have a negative view of ourselves) This tends to lead to: ​ Lack of confidence ​ Want to be/ look like someone else ​ Always worrying about what others might think ​ Pessimism 4 Major Factors that Influence Self-Esteem (Argyle, 2008) -​ The Reaction of Others ​ If people admire us, flatter us, seek out our company, listen attentively, and agree with us, we tend to develop a positive self-image.  ​ If they avoid, neglect, and tell us things about ourselves that we don’t want to hear, we create a negative self-image -​ Comparison with Others ​ If the people we compare ourselves with (our reference group) appear to be more successful, happier, more prosperous, and better looking than ourselves we tend to develop a negative self-image BUT ​ If they are less successful than us our image will be positive. -​ Social Roles ​ Some social roles carry prestige, e.g., being a doctor, airline pilot, or TV presenter premiership footballer, and this promotes self-esteem. Other roles carry a stigma. E.g., a prisoner, mental hospital patient, refuse collector, or unemployed person. -​ Identification ​ Roles aren’t just “out there.” They also become part of our personality i.e. we identify with the positions we occupy, the roles we play, and the groups we belong to. Ideal Self (what you’d like to be) If there is a mismatch between how you see yourself (e.g. your self-image) and what you’d like to be (e.g., your ideal self), then this will likely affect how much you value yourself. Therefore, an intimate relationship exists between self-image, ego-ideal, and self-esteem. A person’s ideal self may not be consistent with what happens in the life and experiences of the person. Hence, a difference may exist between a person’s ideal self and actual experience. This is called incongruence. -​ In Incongruence, the self-image is different to the ideal self, there is only a little overlap, and here, self-actualisation will be difficult. -​ In Congruence, the self-image is similar to the ideal self, there is more overlap and this person can self-actualise. Being self-aware demonstrates one’s “ability to accurately recognize one’s own emotions, thoughts, and values,” along with understanding how they impact one’s behavior. Additionally, self-awareness encompasses an individual’s ability to accurately assess one’s strengths and limitations, with a well-grounded sense of confidence, optimism, and a ‘growth mindset.’ Module 1: Personality Traits History of the Big Five Personality Theory Trait theories of personality have long attempted to pinpoint exactly how many traits exist. Earlier theories have suggested various numbers. For instance, Gordon Allport’s list contained 4,000 personality traits, Raymond Cattell had 16 personality factors, and Hans Eysenck offered a three-factor theory. Many researchers felt that Cattell’s theory was too complicated and Eysenck’s was too limited in scope. As a result, the Big 5 personality traits emerged and are used to describe the broad traits that serve as building blocks of personality. Openness Also referred to as openness to experience, emphasizes imagination and insight the most out of all five personality traits. People with high openness tend to have a broad range of interests. They are curious about the world and others, eager to learn and enjoy new experiences People who are high in this personality trait also tend to be more adventurous and creative. Conversely, people low in this personality trait are often much more traditional and may struggle with abstract thinking. Conscientiousness Among each personality trait, conscientiousness is defined by high levels of thoughtfulness, good impulse control, and goal-directed behaviors. Highly conscientious people tend to be more organized and mindful of details. They plan, consider how their behavior affects others, and are mindful of deadlines. Someone scoring lower in this primary personality trait is less structured and less organized. They may procrastinate to get things done, sometimes missing deadlines completely. Extraversion Or extroversion is characterized by excitability, sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness, and high emotional expressiveness. People high in extraversion are outgoing and tend to gain energy in social situations. Being around others helps them feel energized and excited. People who are low in this personality trait or introverted tend to be more reserved. They have less energy to spend in social settings, and social events can feel draining. Introverts often require a period of solitude and quiet to “recharge.” Agreeableness This personality trait includes trust, altruism, kindness, affection, and other prosocial behaviors. People with agreeableness tend to be more cooperative, while those with low levels of this personality trait tend to be more competitive and sometimes even manipulative. Neuroticism It is a personality trait characterized by sadness, moodiness, and emotional stability. Individuals who are high in neuroticism tend to experience mood swings, anxiety, irritability, and sadness. Low in this personality trait tend to be more stable and emotionally resilient.​ Research suggests that both biological and environmental influences play a role in shaping our personalities. Twin studies suggest that both nature and nurture play a role in developing each of the five personality traits. Module 1: Dimensions of the Self (Holistic Development) Dimensions of Wellness In today’s fast-paced world, it’s easy to get caught up in the hustle and bustle of daily life and neglect our overall well-being. We often prioritize one aspect of wellness over others, forgetting that true wellness encompasses various dimensions of our lives. -​ Physical: This is the ability to maintain a healthy life that allows us to get through our daily activities without undue fatigue or physical stress. Recognizing that our behaviors significantly impact our physical health and adopting healthy habits (routine check-ups, a balanced diet, exercise, etc.) while avoiding destructive ones (tobacco, drugs, alcohol, etc.) will help preserve physical well-being. -​ Emotional: This is the ability to understand ourselves with greater self-awareness and better cope with life’s challenges. The ability to acknowledge and share feelings of anger, fear, sadness or stress, hope, love, joy and happiness in a productive manner contributes significantly to our emotional well-being. -​ Social: This is the ability to relate meaningfully to and connect deeply with others. It includes establishing and maintaining positive relationships with family, friends, and coworkers. Relationships contribute significantly to our social well-being. -​ Intellectual: This is the ability to open our minds to new ideas and experiences. The desire to learn new concepts, improve skills, and seek challenges in pursuing lifelong learning contributes to our intellectual well-being. -​ Spiritual: This is a deep subject and relates to the ability to establish peace and harmony in our lives. It calls for developing greater congruency between our values and actions. Ultimately spiritual well-being invites the realization of the common purpose that binds humanity and creation together. Module 1: Challenges in the Middle and Late Adolescence The Adolescent Transition Period ​ Adolescence is a period of transition when the individual changes—physically and psychologically—from a child to an adult. ​ It is a period when rapid physiological and psychological changes demand new social rules. Indeed, adolescence represents one of the greatest periods of crisis. It is the stage of stress, strain, and storm. It brings many ambiguities in life. During this phase, one does not know where he or she stands. It is believed that this uncertainty about one’s role causes many conflicts. Adolescence is both biological and social in nature. The beginning of adolescence is marked by biological changes in girls and boys. During this period, and following shortly thereafter, the secondary sexual characteristics emerge. Adolescence for both girls and boys is primarily marked by social changes Such factors as when an adolescent leaves home, gets a job, and can vote to determine when his or her transition from childhood to adulthood is accomplished. The problems adolescents face during the long period of growing up have both biological and social roots. Physical changes and deviation can create many problems The society also creates problems for adolescents. Adolescents in Western societies behave differently than in Eastern societies due to varying social norms, expectations, and family structure. Gender Roles Gender is a much more complex term. It relates to a given society’s beliefs about the traits and behaviors supposedly characteristic of males and females. ‘Gender roles’ refer to the expectations concerning the roles males and females should perform and how they should behave. Such expectations come into play as soon as a child is born. Children’s recognition that they belong to one sex or the other is called ‘gender identity,’ it is established quite early in one’s life by the age of three or four. However, they are uncertain whether they will always be a boy or a girl. Module 1: Cognitive Triangle The cognitive triangle visually represents the interconnectedness of thoughts, emotions, and behavior. It illustrates how thoughts influence emotions, leading to actions that, in turn, affect thoughts, creating a continuous cycle. This cycle persists without intervention to disrupt the pattern. The Three-Component Model of Emotions From the CBT perspective, three components make up our emotional experience. They are thoughts, feelings, and behaviors: Thoughts Thoughts refer to the ways that we make sense of situations. Thoughts can take several forms, including verbal forms, such as words, sentences, and explicit ideas, and non-verbal forms, such as mental images. Thoughts are the running commentary we hear in our minds throughout our lives. Feelings The term feelings here doesn’t refer to emotion but the physiological changes due to emotion. For instance, when we feel the emotion of anger, we have the feeling of our face flushing. When we feel the emotion of anxiety, we have the feelings of our heart pounding and muscles tensing. Feelings are the hard-wired physical manifestation of emotion. Behaviors Behaviors are simply the things we do. Importantly, behaviors are also the things we don’t do. For instance, we might bow out of a speaking engagement if we feel overwhelming anxiety. On the other hand, if instead we feel confident, we might seek out those sorts of engagements. Module 1: Teen Brain Adolescence is an important time for brain development. Although the brain stops growing in size by early adolescence, the teen years are all about fine-tuning how the brain works. The brain finishes developing and maturing in the mid-to-late 20s. The prefrontal cortex is one of the last parts of the brain behind the forehead to mature. This area is responsible for planning, prioritizing, and making good decisions. Brain development is related to social experiences during adolescence. Changes to the areas of the brain responsible for social processes can lead teens to focus more on peer relationships and social experiences. The emphasis on peer relationships and ongoing prefrontal cortex development might lead teens to take more risks because the social benefits outweigh the possible consequences of a decision. These risks could be negative, dangerous, or positive, such as talking to a new classmate or joining a new club or sport. The teen brain is ready to learn and adapt. The teen brain has an amazing ability to adapt and respond to new experiences and situations. Taking challenging classes, exercising, and engaging in creative activities like art or music can strengthen brain circuits and help the brain mature. Teen brains may respond differently to stress. Because the teen brain is still developing, teens may respond to stress differently than adults. This could increase teens’ chances of developing stress-related mental illnesses such as anxiety and depression. Recognizing possible triggers and practicing effective coping techniques can help teens deal with stress. Learn more about managing stress. Most teens do not get enough sleep. Research shows that the sleep hormone melatonin works differently in teens than children and adults. In adolescence, melatonin levels stay high later at night and drop later in the morning, which may explain why teens may stay up late and struggle with waking up early. Many teens do not get enough sleep, making it harder to pay attention, control impulses, and do well at school. Getting good sleep at night can help support mental health. Mental illnesses may begin to appear during adolescence. Ongoing changes in the brain, along with the physical, emotional, and social changes, can make teens more likely to experience mental health problems. The fact that all these changes happen at one time may explain why mental illnesses—such as schizophrenia, anxiety, depression, bipolar disorder, and eating disorders—emerge during adolescence. The teen brain is resilient. Despite the stresses and challenges that come with adolescence, most teens go on to become healthy adults. Some changes in the brain during this critical phase of development help support resilience and mental health over the long term. Module 1: Self and Human Development Moral Stages of Development This theory is a stage theory. In other words, everyone goes through the stages sequentially without skipping any stage However, movement through these stages is not natural, that is, people do not automatically move from one stage to the next as they mature. In stage development, movement occurs when a person notices inadequacies in his or her present way of coping with a given moral dilemma. According to stage theory, people cannot understand moral reasoning more than one stage ahead of their own. Moral Development It is the gradual development of an individual’s concept of right or wrong—consciousness, religious values, social attitudes, and certain behaviors Moral Dilemma A conflict in which you have to choose between two or more actions and have moral reasons for choosing each action. Level 1: Preconventional Morality Birth - 9 years old We don’t have a personal code of morality. Instead, our moral code is shaped by the standards of adults and the consequences of following or breaking the rules. Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation The child/ individual is good enough to avoid being punished. If a person is punished, they must have done wrong. Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange At this stage, children recognize that there is not just one right view handed down by the authorities. Different individuals have different viewpoints. Level 2: Conventional Morality Adolescents and Adults We begin to internalize the moral standards of valued adult role models. Authority is internalized but not questioned, and reasoning is based on the group’s norms to which the person belongs. Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships The child/ individual is good in order to be seen as being a good person by others. Therefore, answers relate to the approval of others. Stage 4: Maintaining the Social Order The child/ individual becomes aware of the wider rules of society so judgements concern obeying the rules in order to uphold the law and to avoid guilt. Level 3: Post-Conventional Morality Individual judgement is based on self-chosen principles, and moral reasoning is based on individual rights and justice. Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights The child/ individual becomes aware that while rules/ laws might exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work against the interest of particular individuals. Stage 6: Universal Principles People at this stage have developed their own set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law. The principles apply to everyone. Although subject to criticism, Kohlberg’s theory of moral growth substantially contributes to establishing the discipline of moral psychology. Scholars persist in investigating the process of ethical reasoning formation and transformation throughout life and the universality of these development phases. A comprehensive grasp of these stages provides valuable insights into the processes by which both infants and adults make ethical decisions and how moral reasoning could impact their choices and actions. Development Task Theory The main assertion of Havighurst is that development is continuous throughout a person’s entire lifespan, occurring in stages. A person moves from one stage to the next using the successful resolution of problems or the performance of certain development tasks. Most people typically encounter these tasks in the culture where that person belongs. According to Havighurt’s developmental tasks theory, when people accomplish developmental tasks at a stage, they feel pride and satisfaction. They also learn the approval of their community or society. This success provides a sound foundation that allows these people to accomplish the developmental tasks they will encounter at later Havighurst developmental stages. Conversely, when people fail to accomplish a developmental task, they’re often unhappy and are not accorded the desired approval by society. This results in the subsequent experience of difficulty when faced with succeeding developmental tasks at later Havighurst developmental stages. Teenagers at this stage are highly concerned with how they look. They spend much time grooming, exercising, and modifying their physical appearance. Relationships often change during middle adolescence. There is also the worry about sexual attractiveness. Middle adolescents complain about their parents ‘ preventing them from becoming independent, and they withdraw from them.