PATH 370 Week 1 Study Guide PDF

Week 1 Chapter 1 Primary prevention example like vaccinations o Primary prevention is the prevention of disease by altering susceptibility or reducing exposure for susceptible individuals. o This usually includes vaccination programs and establishment of herd...

Week 1 Chapter 1 Primary prevention example like vaccinations o Primary prevention is the prevention of disease by altering susceptibility or reducing exposure for susceptible individuals. o This usually includes vaccination programs and establishment of herd immunity as an example. o Other forms of primary prevention are promotion of health education to save lives from preventable situations, like car crashes, chemical exposure, and mechanical or physical harm. Tertiary prevention examples like counseling on medications o Tertiary prevention involves the rehabilitative and supportive care to alleviate disability and restore effective functioning. o There are two major groups of tertiary prevention: medical and surgical. ▪ Medical tertiary prevention involves physical therapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, psychotherapy, pharmacotherapy, gene therapy, and radiation therapy. ▪ Surgical tertiary prevention involves repairing the issue through surgical means. Latent vs. Prodromal in an example o The latent period is the period when tissue has been exposed to disease or infection, but does not experience any signs or symptoms. This is analogous to an incubation period. ▪ A latent period can occur after a prodromal period, where the illness does not cause the body to show signs or symptoms. o The prodromal period is the period of the first appearance of signs and symptoms, which indicates the onset of disease. ▪ Usually, the prodromal symptoms are nonspecific until the acute phase of the illness manifests symptoms at their greatest severity. o An example of latent infection is syphilis, where the primary phase may exhibit any signs or symptoms and then moves into latency. The secondary phase experiences signs and symptoms as well, and then is followed by an additional latent phase, or dormancy. A tertiary phase that is severe then manifests and the disease progresses. Endemic definition o An endemic disease is a disease that is native to a local region. Subclinical definition o Subclinical describes a series of signs and symptoms that are indicative of disease but do not affect the daily life of the patient. The patient functions normally despite the disease being well-established. Etiology topic in an example o Etiology is the study of the causes of reasons for disease that provoke a particular disease or injury.  ▪ When we don’t know what causes something, it is called idiopathic. ▪ When we cause issues due to medical intervention, it is called iatrogenic. Chapter 2 Allostasis definition o Allostasis is the ability to successfully adapt to challenges. Allostasis is a dynamic process that supports and helps the body to achieve a steady state condition. Change in an organism for stability is accomplished through allostasis. Hormones other chemicals secreted during the stress response o Stress is received as a stimulus o The hypothalamus releases Corticotropic Releasing Hormone (CRH) ▪ The SNS releases catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine ▪ Trigger fight-or-flight response ▪ The anterior pituitary is stimulated by CRH to release AdrenoCorticoTropic Hormone (ACTH) ▪ ACTH then stimulates the release of cortisol from the adrenal cortex ▪ This is called the Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) axis Selye’s three phases of stress o Three phases: Alarm, Resistance/Adaptation, Exhaustion ▪ Alarm ▪ Considered fight-or-flight ▪ Release of CRH to release norepinephrine, epinephrine, and cortisol to heighten senses and responses ▪ Resistance/Adaptation ▪ The SNS is still fully impacted and is moving nutrients and resources, such as glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids, to the appropriate parts of the body. ▪ This will continue so long as the stress stimulus is received. Otherwise, the body will move to an allostatic response to balance the chemicals into homeostasis. ▪ Exhaustion ▪ Exhaustion occurs when the body is unable to return to a state of homeostasis and energy has been depleted, leading to death. Recovery of systems and allostatic and homeostatic responses are no longer possible because there are no more resources available. ▪ Chronic overstimulation or understimulation can cause wear and tear on the body, called allostatic load. ▪ Overuse and dysregulation of systems can contribute to allostatic load. ▪ Excessive, remitting stimuli or experiences can also contribute to allostatic load. Sympathetic nervous system mediated by norepinephrine  o Norepinephrine works in concert with epinephrine depending on the stimulus. Both have similar effects depending on the condition being experienced by the organism. The SNS releases norepinephrine to trigger postganglionic synapses to release epinephrine to the effector organs and tissues. o Norepinephrine contributes to smooth muscle and blood vessel constriction and has an important role in blood flow regulation. o Norepinephrine also plays the role of reducing gastric secretions, dilation of the pupil, and myocardial contractility, all which are needed to respond appropriately to self-preservation. Chapter 4 Know types of intracellular accumulations o There are 3 types of intracellular accumulations ▪ Normal intracellular substance accumulation, such as fat ▪ May be due to genetic defect, excessive intake, or toxicity ▪ Abnormal intracellular substance accumulation due to faulty metabolism or synthesis ▪ Pigment and particle accumulation that the cell cannot degrade Know cellular adaptation types and definition o There are 5 types of adaptation types ▪ Atrophy – cell shrinking and reduction of differentiated functions ▪ Can be from disuse, denervation, ischemia, nutrient starvation, interruption of endocrine signals, or persistent cell injury ▪ Hypertrophy – Increase in cell mass accompanied by increase in cell function ▪ Due to physiological or pathophysiological changes and can be good, such as muscle growth from exercise, or bad, such as undue stress on cardiac muscles ▪ Hyperplasia – Increase in the number of cells due to mitotic division, and therefore, increase in cell type capacity ▪ Can be physiological, such as experiencing high elevation, or pathophysiological, like calluses or corns from overstimulation ▪ Metaplasia – Replacement of one differentiated cell type with another ▪ This is due to adaptation from persistent injury and is fully reversible with removal of the negative stimulus ▪ Dysplasia – Disorganization of cells and abnormalities in size, shape, and arrangement ▪ An adaptive effort gone astray which can develop into cancer Know types of necrosis o There are 4 types of necrosis ▪ Coagulative – Most common due to ischemia, causing the cell wall to degrade and coagulate, forming a solid group of denatured proteins  ▪ Liquefactive – Quick dissolution of cells, usually due to bacterial infection and a large enzymatic and lytic response that results in liquid debris ▪ Fat – death of adipose cells due to physical trauma or pancreatitis, where lipase dissolves fat cells, releasing soaps ▪ Caseous – Lung tissue damage due tuberculosis Apoptosis definition o Apoptosis is cell-mediated and cell-regulated cell death. Can also be called programmed cell death. Chapter 7 Side effects of chemotherapy include anemia, nausea, bleeding, and infections o Chemotherapy is cytotoxic and interferes with cell division, especially in rapidly dividing cells. This is why normal cells are impacted, such as hair, nails, bone marrow, and intestinal epithelia. Cancer terminology: oma, carcinoma, and sarcoma (Also, know the exceptions to the rule) o -oma generally indicates a benign tumor. o -carcinoma generally indicates a malignant tumor of epithelial origin. o -sarcoma indicates a malignant tumor of mesenchymal origin (nerves, bones, and muscles) o Exceptions to the rule are lymphomas, hepatomas, melanomas, and leukemias, all which are malignant. Grading vs. Staging o Grading is the histologic characterization of a tumor cell and identifying the degree of anaplasia. o Staging is the location and pattern of spread of a tumor within the host. ▪ Tumor size, local growth, lymph node involvement, presence of metastases are considered staging details ▪ The TNM system is used to stage tumors (tumor, nodes, metastasis) Deficits in immune system function in cancer: chemotherapy, cancer cells, cancer metastasis to bone marrow, and malnutrition o Chemotherapy induces a handful of side effects on the immune system, such as reduction of function of bone marrow, which generates white blood cells and reduces immune response and effectiveness. o Cancer cells secrete substances that reduces the immune response and impact the function of T cells and B cells. Antigen identification becomes reduced. o Bone marrow suppression leads to a series of issues that accompany cancer, such as anemia, leukopenia, and thrombocytopenia. With the onset of cancer metastasis to bone marrow, the inability to appropriately create white blood cells (any form of them) becomes reduced or modified. Leukopenia is a result of bone marrow metastasis, which reduces the ability for the body to fight infection. This allows opportunistic infections to increase.  o Malnutrition is usually caused due to a loss of appetite and an increased metabolic rate, leading to a reduction in adequate nutrition. Side effects like nausea and vomiting stop the patient from eating, and are usually side effects of cancer treatment. Tumor marker functions: produced by normal cells, help determine cancer origin, help identify progression of cancer, and include prostatic-specific antigen o Tumor biomarkers are substances that are associated with tumor cells that help identify the original tissue type and the extent of the disease. ▪ Genetic markers like abnormal chromosomes, hormones, hormone receptors, oncofetal antigens, enzymes, or other substances secreted by cancer cells may help identify a lot of these factors. They can also be found in peripheral circulation. ▪ Some cancers have specific proteins and enzymes associated to them, making it clear the original source of the cancer. ▪ PSA is used for screening for men between the ages of 45 and 69 to determine if there is an increase in outputs of prostate antigens due to mutant cells.