Week 1: Intro to Pathophysiology & Diagnostic Testing PDF

+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Introduction to Pathophysiology | | | | | | **Learning Outcomes:** | | |...

+-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Introduction to Pathophysiology | | | | | | **Learning Outcomes:** | | | | | | 1. Define and properly pronounce | | | basic medical terminology | | | used in the study of human | | | disease | | | | | | 2. Define the term pathogenesis | | | and discuss its meaning. | | | | | | 3. Explain the difference | | | between a prognosis and a | | | diagnosis. | | | | | | 4. Define the term treatment and | | | identify different types. | | | | | | 5. Discuss the concept of | | | holistic health care and | | | components of it. | | | | | | 6. Explain the role | | | pathophysiology in the | | | diagnosis and treatment of | | | disease. | | | | | | 7. Recall the term homeostasis | | | and relate it to the study of | | | pathophysiology. | | | | | | 8. Identify the predisposing | | | factors to human disease. | | | | | | **Readings:** | | | | | | Chapter 1- pages 1-3, 5-8 | | | | | | Chapter 3- pages 48-50 | | +===================================+===================================+ | Chapter 1: pages 1-3 | - **Pathophysiology-** study of | | | functional or physiologic | | **Understanding Health & | changes in the body, | | Disease** | resulting from disease | | | process | | | | | | - **Disease-** Deviation from | | | the normal structure or | | | function. Is a definite | | | pathological process with | | | sign and symptoms. | | | | | | - **Sign-** objective | | | indicators of disease | | | that are obvious to | | | someone other than the | | | affected individual | | | | | | - **Symptom-** Subjective | | | feelings, such as pain or | | | nausea | | | | | | - World Health Organization | | | (WHO) describes health as the | | | physical, mental and social | | | welling of an individual. | | | | | | - Health difficult to | | | define due to the way | | | health is measured from | | | person to person. | | | | | | - Ex. a person who is blind | | | can be in good health. | | | | | | - **Homeostasis-** maintenance | | | of stable internal | | | environment regardless of | | | external changes. Disease | | | develops when homeostasis | | | cannot be maintained without | | | intervention. | | | | | | - When defining normal limits | | | for health indicators like | | | BP, pulse, laboratory data | | | values used represent a | | | range. | | | | | | - Values adjusted for | | | factors like age, gender, | | | genetics, environment, | | | and activity level. | | | | | | - Ex. Well trained athletes | | | have lower heart rate | | | than the average person | | | and BP increase slightly | | | with age. | | | | | | - Specific disease in a | | | text presents a general | | | description of typical | | | characteristics of that | | | disease, but difference | | | can occur in a specific | | | individual. Ex. | | | hypertension in black | | | individuals does not | | | respond to standard | | | treatment and they | | | experience a more | | | resistant version versus | | | their white counterparts. | | | White individuals tend to | | | present a more typical | | | profile and respond | | | better to standard | | | antihypertensive | | | medications. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Concept & Scope of | - Pathophysiology uses basic | | Pathophysiology** | anatomy and physiology and is | | | based on the loss or change | | | in normal structure and | | | function. | | | | | | - Disorder affecting a system | | | or organ display a set of | | | common sign and symptoms | | | directly related to the | | | organs normal structure and | | | function. | | | | | | - Interruption of normal | | | function of one organ will | | | affect another organ system. | | | | | | - Ex. When the liver is | | | damage clotting factors | | | cannot be produced | | | leading to excessive | | | bleeding. Inflammation in | | | the liver causing swell | | | of tissues and stretching | | | of the liver capsule, | | | kidneys may swell as | | | well. | | | | | | - Cause and effect | | | relationship define by | | | signs and symptoms, | | | facilitates the study of | | | a specific disease. | | | | | | - Known causes and factors | | | predisposing to a specific | | | disease are being used to | | | develop effective preventive | | | programs | | | | | | - CDC plays a significant | | | role in the collection of | | | data about types of | | | disease and provide | | | evidence-based | | | recommendation for | | | prevention. Ex. | | | vaccinations, screening | | | program. | | | | | | - Studying pathophysiology | | | makes student aware of the | | | complexity of disease, the | | | difficulties encountered in | | | diagnosis and treatment, and | | | possible Implication from a | | | list of signs and symptoms. | | | | | | - Expensive diagnostic test | | | is available, but | | | availability depends on | | | geographic location, | | | money, and access. | | | | | | - Understanding | | | pathophysiology gives a | | | better understanding to | | | factors such as the | | | disease manifestations, | | | potential complications | | | and developing | | | appropriate treatment | | | plans. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Primary, Secondary and Tertiary | - **Primary Prevention-** goal | | Prevention** | is to protect healthy people | | | from developing a disease or | | | experiencing an injury in the | | | first place. Examples | | | include: | | | | | | - Education about good | | | nutrition, the importance | | | of regular exercise, and | | | the dangers of tobacco, | | | alcohol, and other drugs | | | | | | - Education and legislation | | | about proper seat belt | | | and helmet use | | | | | | - Regular exams and | | | screening tests to | | | monitor risk factors for | | | illness | | | | | | - Immunization against | | | infectious disease | | | | | | - Controlling potential | | | hazards at home and in | | | the workplace | | | | | | - **Secondary | | | Prevention-**interventions | | | after an illness or serious | | | risk factors have already | | | been diagnosed. The goal is | | | to halt or slow the progress | | | of disease. Examples include: | | | | | | - Telling people to take | | | daily, low-dose aspirin | | | to prevent a first or | | | second heart attack or | | | stroke | | | | | | - Recommending regular | | | exams and screening tests | | | in people with known risk | | | factors for illness | | | | | | - Providing suitably | | | modified work for injured | | | workers" | | | | | | - **Tertiary Prevention-** | | | focuses on helping people | | | manage complicated, long-term | | | health problems such as | | | diabetes, heart disease, | | | cancer, and chronic | | | musculoskeletal pain. The | | | goals include preventing | | | further physical | | | deterioration and maximizing | | | quality of life. Examples | | | include: | | | | | | - Cardiac or stroke | | | rehabilitation programs | | | | | | - Chronic pain management | | | programs | | | | | | - Patient support groups | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | | - Research process in health | | | science is **3 stage | | | process** called | | | **evidence-based research | | | findings** aiming to | | | demonstrate both the safety | | | and effectiveness of a new | | | therapy. | | | | | | - **Stage 1 Basic | | | Science:** Researcher | | | identify a technology or | | | method that will limit or | | | prevent the disease the | | | disease process. Carried | | | out in a lab and requires | | | the use or animals or | | | cell cultures. | | | | | | - **Stage 2:** involves a | | | small number of human | | | subjects to determine if | | | therapy is safe for human | | | | | | - **Stage 3:** Only takes | | | place if the results in | | | stage 2 are positive, but | | | most don't make it here. | | | A large number of | | | patients with the disease | | | or at risk for the | | | disease are enrolled in a | | | clinical trial. | | | | | | - Involves **double | | | blind studies**: | | | research subjects and | | | the person | | | administering the | | | treatment do not know | | | if the subject is | | | receiving a standard, | | | proven therapy or the | | | therapy being tested. | | | | | | - Data is analyzed to | | | determine if new | | | therapy is better | | | than the standard one | | | available. If | | | approved, it will be | | | used for the specific | | | disease. | | | | | | - Once approved, it may | | | show additional | | | potential to treat a | | | different disease | | | which is referred to | | | as **"off label"**, | | | but it will have to | | | go through the third | | | clinical stage with | | | the new disease | | | before it can be | | | approved for the new | | | disease. | | | | | | - Ex. | | | Hydroxychloroquine is | | | used for the | | | treatment and | | | prevention of | | | malaria, RA, and | | | systemic lupus | | | erythematosus. It | | | recently was found to | | | beneficial in the | | | fight against COVID | | | -19 | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Chapter 1 | - **Disease-** involves changes | | | at the organ/ system level as | | Pages 5-8 | well as the microscopic | | | level. | | **Basic Terminology of | | | Pathophysiology** | - **Pathophysiology-** focuses | | | on effect of abnormalities at | | **Disease Process** | the organ level, but cellular | | | changes are usually integral | | **Etiology-** cause of disease | to a full understanding of | | | those affects. | | **Characteristics of Disease** | | | | - Pathology laboratory studies | | | useful establishing the cause | | | of a disease, examine tissues | | | specimens from biopsy, | | | surgical specimens, or | | | examination after death | | | (autopsy), body fluids. | | | | | | - **Diagnosis-** identification | | | of a specific disease through | | | evaluation of signs, | | | symptoms, laboratory test | | | also more than one factor is | | | required. Ex. a diagnosis of | | | diabetes mellitus could be | | | confirmed by blood tests and | | | patients' signs. | | | | | | - **Etiology-** Causative | | | factors in particular | | | disease. May be one or | | | several causative factors. | | | | | | - Etiologic agents include | | | congenital defects, | | | inherited or genetic | | | disorders, immunologic | | | dysfunction, metabolic | | | derangement, degenerative | | | changes, burns and other | | | trauma, environmental | | | factors, nutritional | | | deficiencies. | | | | | | - **Idiopathic-** when | | | cause of disease is | | | unknown | | | | | | - **Iatrogenic-** a | | | treatment, procedure, or | | | error may case a disease. | | | Ex. bladder infection | | | following catheterization | | | or bone marrow damage | | | caused by a prescribed | | | drug. | | | | | | - **Predisposing | | | factors-** indicates | | | a high risk for the | | | disease, but not | | | certain development. | | | Predisposing factors | | | includes age, gender, | | | inherited factors, | | | occupational | | | exposure, or certain | | | dietary practices. | | | Ex. insufficient | | | calcium intake | | | predisposes to | | | osteoporosis. | | | | | | - **Prophylaxis-** | | | measures designed to | | | preserve health and | | | prevent the spread of | | | disease. Prophylactic | | | treatment for | | | myocardial infarction | | | for high-risk | | | patients is a baby | | | aspirin daily. | | | | | | - **Pathogenesis-** development | | | of the disease or changes | | | related to specific disease | | | process. | | | | | | - **Onset of a disease-** may | | | be sudden and obvious or | | | **acute** Ex. gastroenteritis | | | with vomiting, cramps, and | | | diarrhea or may be | | | **insidious,** gradual | | | progression with only vague | | | or very mild signs. Ex | | | hepatitis manifest quietly. | | | | | | - **Acute disease-** short-term | | | illness that develops quickly | | | with marked signs such as | | | high fever or severe pain Ex. | | | acute appendicitis | | | | | | - **Chronic disease-** Milder | | | condition that develops | | | gradually but that persists | | | for a long time, usually | | | causes more permanent tissue | | | damage. Ex rheumatoid | | | arthritis. Often a chronic | | | disease is marked by | | | intermittent acute episodes. | | | | | | - **Subclinical state-** | | | Pathologic changes occurs but | | | the patient exhibits no | | | obvious manifestations. Ex. | | | kidney damage may progress to | | | an advanced stage of renal | | | failure before symptoms are | | | manifested. | | | | | | - Latent/silent- no clinical | | | signs are evident | | | | | | - In infectious disease it | | | referred to the | | | **incubation period**- | | | time between exposure to | | | the microorganism and | | | onset of signs of | | | symptoms | | | | | | - **Pronominal period-** time | | | in the early development of a | | | disease when one is aware of | | | a change in the body, but the | | | signs are nonspecific. | | | Laboratory test will read | | | negative during this period, | | | so it is hard to confirm | | | diagnosis. | | | | | | - **Manifestations-** disease | | | are the clinical evidence or | | | effects, signs, and symptoms | | | of disease. | | | | | | - **Lesion-** local change in | | | the tissue, change may be | | | microscopic, and blister or | | | pimple may appear on the | | | skin. | | | | | | - **Syndrome-** Collection of | | | signs and symptoms, often | | | affecting more than one | | | organ, and usually occur | | | together in response to a | | | certain condition | | | | | | - **Diagnostic tests-** | | | laboratory test that assist | | | in the diagnosis of a | | | specific disease. Ordered | | | based on the patients' | | | manifestations and medical | | | history. Can be used for | | | monitoring the response to | | | treatment or the progression | | | of disease | | | | | | - Remissions and exacerbations | | | may mark the course or | | | progress of a disease. | | | | | | - **Remission**- Period or | | | condition in which the | | | manifestations of the | | | disease subside, either | | | permanently or | | | temporarily. Ex. | | | Rheumatoid arthritis | | | typically has periods of | | | remission, when pain and | | | swelling are minimal, | | | alternating with acute | | | periods, when swelling | | | and pain are severe | | | | | | - **Exacerbation-** | | | Worsening in the severity | | | of the disease or in its | | | signs/symptoms. Ex. The | | | exacerbation of asthma | | | might include excessive | | | pollen or air pollution | | | leading to serious | | | breathing problems. | | | | | | - **Precipitating factor-** | | | Condition that triggers an | | | acute episode. Ex. seizure in | | | an individual with a seizure | | | disorder. Precipitating | | | factor differs from a | | | predisposing factor. | | | | | | - **Complications-** are new | | | secondary or additional | | | problems that arise after the | | | original disease begins. Ex. | | | following a heart attack, a | | | person may develop congestive | | | heart failure, a | | | complication. | | | | | | - **Therapeutic | | | interventions-** are | | | treatment measures used to | | | promote recovery or slow the | | | progress of a disease. May | | | include surgery, drugs, | | | physiotherapy, alternative | | | therapies, or behavior | | | modification. | | | | | | - **Sequelae-** are the | | | potential unwanted outcomes | | | of the primary condition, | | | such as paralysis following | | | recovery from a stroke. | | | | | | - **Convalescence or | | | rehabilitation-** Period of | | | recovery and return to the | | | normal healthy state; it may | | | last for several days or | | | months. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Chapter 3: pages 48-50 | - **Physiotherapist** | | | **assesses physical | | **Traditional Forms of Therapy** | function** and works to | | | retore any deficit and | | **Complementary or Alternative | prevent further physical | | Therapies** | dysfunction. | | | | | **Asian Concepts of Disease & | - Involves individuals' | | Healing** | treatment, rehabilitation | | | and to reduce pain. | | | | | | - Include exercises | | | ultrasound, electrical | | | nerve stimulation, | | | alleviate pain and | | | increase joint | | | flexibility and mobility. | | | | | | - Patients have acute | | | neurologic, | | | musculoskeletal, and | | | cardiopulmonary | | | disorders. | | | | | | - Long term care involves | | | maximizing mobility and | | | functional independent, | | | amputee and those with | | | brain injury, spinal cord | | | injury or stroke. | | | | | | - **Occupational Therapy-** | | | provides functional | | | assessment of patient | | | capabilities related to | | | normal activities of daily | | | living. | | | | | | - Evaluate motor, | | | cognitive, and | | | visual-spatial abilities | | | | | | - Teaches patient to use | | | adaptation aid like | | | wheelchair or walkers | | | | | | - **Speech/ Language Therapy-** | | | Assessment and treatment of | | | with communication or | | | swallowing problems. | | | | | | - **Nutrition/ diet-** Offers | | | advice to individuals or | | | groups on the nutritional | | | demands and food management | | | best suited to a specific | | | diagnosis. Also supervise | | | food services in hospitals | | | and health care institutions | | | and may be consulted with | | | eating disorders. | | | | | | - **Registered Message | | | Therapy-** Use a variety of | | | techniques to increase | | | circulation, reduce pain, and | | | increase flexibility for | | | patient experiencing join | | | pain or problems with body | | | alignment. | | | | | | - **Osteopathy-** Use | | | traditional treatment methods | | | like surgery and drugs, | | | promote the body's natural | | | healing processes by | | | incorporating manipulation of | | | the musculoskeletal system in | | | both diagnosis and treatment. | | | | | | - **Chiropractic-** concept the | | | one's health status is | | | dependent on state of the | | | nervous system, which | | | regulates all body functions | | | to maintain homeostasis. | | | Involves manipulation of the | | | vertebral column, and | | | typically no drugs or | | | surgery. | | | | | | - **Alternative therapies-** | | | are considered outside the | | | range of traditional western | | | medicine focuses on | | | alleviating disease and | | | suffering. | | | | | | - list alternative | | | therapies acupuncture, | | | aromatherapy, shiatsu, | | | reflexology, and herbal | | | medicine. | | | | | | - Generally, uses holistic | | | approach, which half of | | | the population uses some | | | form of it. | | | | | | - **Non-contact therapeutic | | | touch-** energy is exchanged | | | between people to relieve | | | pain and anxiety and to | | | promote healing. First step | | | has positive intent to heal | | | then lightly moving hands | | | above the body surface as a | | | means to transfer healing | | | energy to patient. | | | | | | - **Naturopathy-** based on | | | promoting natural foods, | | | massage, exercise, and fresh | | | air as a way of life, thus | | | enhancing health and | | | preventing disease. | | | Acupuncture, herbal | | | medicines, nutrition, | | | massage, and physical | | | manipulations may be included | | | as part of this form of | | | treatment. | | | | | | - **Homeopathy-** Goal of | | | stimulating the immune system | | | and natural healing power in | | | the body through the use of | | | plant, animal, and mineral | | | products. | | | | | | - **Herbal medicine-** first | | | documented in Egypt. | | | Echinacea is found in many | | | cold remedies and is used for | | | prophylaxis. St. John's wort | | | contains compounds similar to | | | standard antidepressant | | | medications. | | | | | | - **Aromatherapy-** essential | | | oils that have therapeutic | | | effects when rubbed on the | | | skin or inhaled are extracted | | | from plants. When inhaled, | | | the essence influences | | | physiologic functions through | | | the olfactory system. | | | | | | - **Asian therapies** based on | | | the **balance or imbalance | | | of** life energy called | | | **qi** (Chee). | | | | | | - Disease is caused by deficit | | | or excess of qi. | | | | | | - **Qi derived** from **3 | | | sources**: | | | | | | - **Inherited or ancestral | | | factors** | | | | | | - **Food ingested** | | | | | | - **Air breathed in.** | | | | | | - Disharmony between yin and | | | yang may be caused by changes | | | in diet, stress, metabolism, | | | activity or environment, | | | leading to disease. | | | | | | - Qi flows along specific | | | channels called meridians, | | | join all organs and body | | | parts together. | | | | | | - Each meridian has a name | | | and function and may be | | | located near the organ | | | for which it is named. | | | All meridians are | | | bilateral, except for one | | | midline anterior and one | | | midline posterior. | | | | | | - **Acupuncture-** Chinese | | | therapeutic discipline is | | | 3000 years old and involves | | | inserting very fine needles | | | into various meridian | | | acupoints to balance the body | | | energy. Each point has | | | specific or generalized | | | therapeutic action. Deals | | | with pain relief and | | | balancing energy to restore | | | health by using superficial | | | meridian acupoints. | | | | | | - **Moxibustion**- acupuncture | | | that specifically treat cold | | | or deficiency patterns by | | | burning moxa to produce pure | | | yang energy that penetrates | | | deeply into the body tissues | | | to bring about relief. | | | | | | - **Shiatsu-** Japanese refine | | | version of **acupuncture | | | without needles** with **2 | | | main forms:** | | | | | | - **Shiatsu-** which uses | | | only thumbs | | | | | | - **Zen shiatsu-** uses | | | fingers, thumbs, elbows | | | and knees to deliver | | | slow, deep but gentle | | | pressure. | | | | | | - Recommended for | | | stress-related illness | | | and back pain | | | | | | - **Yoga-** Indian discipline | | | combining physical activity | | | in the form of body | | | stretching postures with | | | meditation. Prana circulates | | | through the body via channels | | | to connect to seven chakras | | | centers running up the | | | midline. Relives pain and | | | anxiety for some individual | | | with chronic disease. | | | | | | - Reflexology, a therapy from | | | ancient China and Egypt. When | | | foot is stimulated with | | | massage, this elicits changes | | | in distant organs or | | | structures in the body | | | through meridians | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Diagnostic Testing | | | | | | **Learning Outcomes** | | | | | | Recall the composition of blood.\ | | | 2.    Define the term | | | venipuncture.\ | | | 3.    Discuss the procedure of | | | venipuncture.\ | | | 4.    Discuss the cells examined | | | in a complete blood count.\ | | | 5.    Describe a differential | | | white count and why it is | | | ordered.\ | | | 6.    Explain the meaning of | | | blood chemistry.\ | | | 7.    State at least five | | | components that can be analyzed | | | through blood chemistry. | | | | | | 8\.    Recall the formation of | | | urine and the function of the | | | kidneys.\ | | | 9.    Differentiate between | | | urinalysis and a midstream | | | urine collection.\ | | | 10.  Explain a timed urine | | | collection. (24-hour | | | collection)\ | | | 11.  Review the physical and | | | chemical characteristics of a | | | urinalysis.\ | | | 12.  Recall the process of | | | stool formation.\ | | | 13.  Discuss the normal | | | findings that may be found in a | | | stool specimen.\ | | | 14.  List potential findings | | | that can be an analyzed in | | | stool. | | | | | | 15\.  Recall the normal | | | composition of CSF.\ | | | 16.  Trace the flow of SCF from | | | production to entry into the | | | cardiovascular system.\ | | | 17.  Recall the blood brain | | | barrier and its function.\ | | | 18.  Name and describe the | | | procedure to attain a sample of | | | CSF and why it is ordered.\ | | | 19.  Explain the cause and | | | effect of the pressure of CSF. | | | | | | 20\.  Discuss the purpose of | | | nuclear medicine scans and how | | | they are performed on the | | | body.\ | | | 21.  Define a radioactive | | | isotope.\ | | | 22.  Define a tracer study.\ | | | 23.  Define uptake in reference | | | to nuclear medicine scans.\ | | | 24.  Name three different types | | | on nuclear medicine scans.\ | | | 25.  Explain the term x-ray. | | | (radiographs, roentgenograms)\ | | | 26.  Define the term | | | radiolucent, radiopaque and | | | ionization.\ | | | 27.  Discuss the term plain or | | | conventional x-ray, give three | | | examples of each.\ | | | 28.  Discuss the use of | | | contrast media and why it is | | | used, give three examples.\ | | | 29.  Discuss computed | | | tomography and compare it to | | | conventional radiography.\ | | | 30.  List three reasons why | | | computed tomography is | | | ordered.\ | | | 31.  Define the term cytology | | | and histology.\ | | | 32.  List some examples of | | | situations of this testing | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Ch.5 inflammation & Healing | - **Defense mechanism of the | | | body may be non-specific or | | Page 66 | specific**. | | | | | **Review of Body Defenses** | - Defenses are **divided into 3 | | | lines of defense**: | | | | | | - **First Line:** | | | Non-specific mechanical | | | barrier like skin or | | | mucous membrane that | | | blocks entry of bacteria | | | or harmful substances | | | into the tissues. These | | | barriers are also | | | associated with | | | secretion-like saliva or | | | tears containing enzymes | | | that destroy damaging | | | material. | | | | | | - **Second Line:** | | | Nonspecific process of | | | phagocytosis and | | | inflammation. | | | Phagocytosis is the | | | process by which | | | neutrophils (type of | | | leukocyte) and | | | macrophages randomly | | | engulf and destroy | | | bacteria, cell debris and | | | foreign matter | | | | | | - **Third Line:** Body | | | specific mechanism that | | | provides protection by | | | stimulating the | | | production of unique | | | antibodies or sensitized | | | lymphocytes following | | | exposure to specific | | | substance | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Physiology of inflammation** | - **Inflammation-** | | Page 67 | non-specific response to | | | tissue injury resulting in | | | redness, swelling, warmth, | | | pain and loss of function. | | | | | | - Disorders are named using | | | **-itis** for inflammation. | | | | | | - Ex. pancreatitis, | | | appendicitis, laryngitis, | | | ileitis. | | | | | | - **Inflammatory response-** is | | | protective mechanism intended | | | to localize and remove the | | | injurious agent that results | | | from a cut, allergic | | | reaction, bite, burns, or | | | infection. | | | | | | - General signs serve as a | | | warning of a problem | | | | | | - **Not the same as infection** | | | | | | - During infection, | | | microorganisms present at | | | the site cause | | | inflammation. | | | | | | - Inflammation caused by an | | | allergy, or burns | | | microbes are usually not | | | present unless the burn | | | results in an open lesion | | | that get contaminated. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Diagnostic Tests** | - Changes in the blood with | | | inflammation: | | Pages 71-72 | | | | - **Leukocytosis:** will | | All non-specific changes except | have increased numbers of | | for differential count | WBC, especially | | | neutrophils. | | | | | | - The neutrophils are | | | usually immature and | | | referred to as "a | | | shift to the left" | | | | | | - **Differential count:** | | | proportion of each type | | | of WBC altered, depending | | | on the cause. | | | | | | - Helpful in | | | distinguishing viral | | | from bacterial | | | infection | | | | | | - **Plasma proteins:** | | | increased fibrinogen and | | | prothrombin | | | | | | - **C-reactive protein:** A | | | protein not normally in | | | the blood but appears | | | with acute inflammation | | | and necrosis within 24-48 | | | hours | | | | | | - **Increased erythrocyte | | | sedimentation rate:** | | | Elevated plasma proteins | | | increase the rate at | | | which RBC settle in | | | sample | | | | | | - **Cell enzymes:** | | | Released from necrotic | | | cells and enter tissue | | | fluids and blood may | | | indicate the site of | | | inflammation. | | | | | | - Some enzymes are not | | | tissue specific. Ex. | | | aspartate | | | aminotransferase is | | | elevated in liver | | | disease and acute | | | stages of a | | | myocardial | | | infraction. | | | | | | - If cause of inflammatory | | | response is a brief exposure | | | to a damaging agent it will | | | subside in 24-48 hours, | | | vascular ungritty will be | | | regained and excess fluid and | | | protein and returned to | | | general circulation. | | | | | | - If not removed, | | | inflammation persist, the | | | amount of necrosis | | | depends on the specific | | | cause of trauma and | | | factors contributing to | | | inflammatory response. | | | Extensive necrosis may | | | lead to ulcers or erosion | | | of tissues. Ex. | | | gingivitis in the oral | | | cavity leads to painful | | | ulcers | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Ch. 10 Blood and Circulatory | - All system depends on blood | | | as it circulates through the | | Page 186 | body and **functions to**: | | | | | **Review of Circulatory System & | - **Transport oxygen and | | Blood** | nutrients to all | | | tissues** | | | | | | - **Remove waste products | | | of cellular metabolism** | | | | | | - **Role in immunity and | | | maintaining | | | homeostasis.** | | | | | | - Blood and lymph are | | | transported throughout the | | | body through vessel and the | | | pumping action of the heart. | | | | | | - Provides mechanism for | | | controlling body temperature | | | by distributing core heat | | | throughout peripheral | | | tissues. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Blood Vessels** | - Arteries, capillaries, vein | | | distribute blood throughout | | **Page 187** | the body. | | | | | | - There are **2 separate | | | circulations:** | | | | | | - The **pulmonary | | | circulation**- allows the | | | exchange of oxygen and | | | carbon dioxide in the | | | lungs. | | | | | | - The **systemic | | | circulation**- exchanges | | | nutrients and waste | | | between the blood and the | | | cells throughout the | | | body. | | | | | | - **Arteries** transport | | | **blood away from the heart** | | | and into the lungs or body | | | tissues. | | | | | | - **Arterioles** are | | | **smaller branches of | | | arteries** controlling | | | the amount of blood | | | flowing into the | | | capillaries through | | | vasoconstriction and | | | dilation. | | | | | | - **Capillaries are very small | | | vessels that** **form | | | microcirculation**. Blood | | | will flow **very slow** from | | | capillaries and precapillary | | | sphincters determine the | | | amount of blood flowing from | | | arterioles into capillaries. | | | | | | - Small venules conduct blood | | | from the capillary bed to the | | | heart. | | | | | | - Larger veins collect blood | | | draining from the venules and | | | will flow based on skeletal | | | muscle action, respiratory | | | movements and gravity. | | | | | | - The **walls of arteries and | | | veins** are made up of **3 | | | layers**: | | | | | | - **1. Tunica Intima-** | | | Inner endothelial layer. | | | | | | - **2. Tunica media-** | | | Middle layer of Smooth | | | muscle controlling the | | | diameter of the blood | | | vessel. | | | | | | - **3. Tunica adventitia | | | (externa)-** outer layer | | | of connective tissues | | | which contain elastic and | | | collagen fibers | | | | | | - | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Blood Composition** | - Adult body approx. 5 L of | | | blood. | | | | | | - Blood 55% of water and | | | dissolved solutes and 45% | | | cells or formed liquid | | | elements, the erythrocytes, | | | leukocytes, thrombocytes, | | | platelets: | | | | | | - **Hematocrit-** proportion of | | | cells in blood and indicates | | | the viscosity of blood. | | | | | | - Elevated hematocrit can | | | indicate dehydration or | | | excess RBC. Low | | | hematocrit results from | | | blood loss or anemia | | | | | | - **Plasma-** clear-yellowish | | | fluid after cells have been | | | removed. | | | | | | - **Serum-** Fluid and solutes | | | remaining after the cells and | | | fibrinogen is removed from | | | plasma. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Diagnostic Tests** | - **Basic diagnostic test for | | | blood is CBC** (complete | | | blood count), which includes | | | total RBC, WBC, platelets, | | | cell morphology (size and | | | shape), a differential count | | | for WBC, amount/concentration | | | of hemoglobin and hematocrit | | | values. | | | | | | - Test is useful screening | | | tool. | | | | | | - Ex. Leukocytosis, an | | | increase in WBC in the | | | circulation is often | | | associated with | | | inflammation or | | | infection. | | | | | | - Ex. Leukopenia, a | | | decrease in leukocytes | | | occurs in some viral | | | infections, radiation and | | | chemotherapy. | | | | | | - Ex. An increase in | | | eosinophils is common | | | with allergic responses. | | | | | | - Different types of anemia are | | | distinguished by the | | | characteristic size, shape, | | | and presences of a nucleus in | | | the RBC. | | | | | | - Hematocrit shows the | | | percentage of blood volume | | | composed of RBC and indicates | | | fluid and cell content. Low | | | RBC may indicate anemia. | | | | | | - Hemoglobin is measured and | | | the amount of hemoglobin per | | | cell indicates the oxygen | | | carrying capacity of the | | | blood. | | | | | | - **Bone marrow function** is | | | **assessed** by the | | | **reticulocyte count** | | | (immature nonnucleated RBC). | | | | | | - Chemical analysis of the | | | blood determines the serum | | | level like iron, vitamin b12, | | | and folic acid, cholesterol, | | | urea, glucose and bilirubin. | | | | | | - Blood clotting disorder can | | | be differentiated by test | | | like bleeding time which | | | measure platelet function by | | | seeing how much time is takes | | | to plug a small puncture | | | wound. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Ch. 14 Nervous System Disorders | - Nervous system consists of: | | | | | Review of Nervous Systems | - The central Nervous | | | system (CNS)- brain and | | Page 327 | spinal cord | | | | | | - The peripheral Nervous | | | system (PNS)- cranial and | | | spinal nerves. Also | | | covers ganglia, sensory | | | neurons, and | | | neuromuscular junctions. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | The brain | - Communication and control | | | center of the body | | Page 327 | | | | - Receives, processes, | | | evaluates input and decides | | | on the action to be taken and | | | initiates a response. | | | | | | - Responses can be involuntary | | | which are controlled by | | | autonomic nervous system | | | (homeostasis) or voluntary | | | which are controlled by the | | | somatic nervous system | | | (moving your arm). | | | | | | - | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | Protection for the brain | - Brain is protected by the | | | rigid bone of the skull, 3 | | Meninges = pink highlight | membrane/meninges, and the | | | cerebrospinal fluid (CFS). | | Spaces- yellow highlight | | | | - Meninges- consist of 3 | | | continuous connective tissues | | | membrane covering the brain | | | and spinal cord. | | | | | | - The meninges and the | | | contents of spaces | | | between the layers: | | | | | | - **Dura mater-** Outer | | | layer. Tough fibrous | | | double layered | | | membrane that | | | separates at specific | | | points to form the | | | dural sinuses | | | (channels) in the | | | brain that