Parts of Speech PDF

Parts of Speech Noun: A noun is a person, place, thing, or concept. Nouns are especially important because only a noun or pronoun can form the subject of a sentence, and a sentence without a subject is a fragment. See “Sentence Fragments” for more information. Pronoun: A pronoun is a word used...

Parts of Speech Noun: A noun is a person, place, thing, or concept. Nouns are especially important because only a noun or pronoun can form the subject of a sentence, and a sentence without a subject is a fragment. See “Sentence Fragments” for more information. Pronoun: A pronoun is a word used in place of a specific noun, referred to as its antecedent. Traditionally, a pronoun and its antecedent have had to agree in number and gender. In recent years, the use of the traditionally plural pronoun “they” as a singular pronoun has gained widespread usage and acceptance as an option when individuals choose it as their preferred pronoun. Adjective: An adjective is a word used to describe or otherwise modify a noun or pronoun. It is not to be confused with an adverb, which modifies a verb (see “Adverb” below). Verb: Often thought of as an action word, verbs are words that do describe action, though they also describe existence (so that, for instance, “to be” is a verb, as are “is” and “become”). Grammatically, however, the verb of a sentence often consists of more than one word, and it frequently involves a main verb and a helping verb. Adverb: An adverb is a word that describes or modifies a verb. It is like an adjective, except that adjectives modify nouns and pronouns, but adverbs modify verbs. Preposition: A preposition is a word that provides coordinates in space or time. Prepositions modify other words in a sentence, usually fixing them as existing in a specific place or functioning at a particular time, to form a prepositional phrase (which consists of the preposition and the word/words it modifies). Coordinating Conjunction: Coordinating conjunctions are extremely important because they are the only way to join two independent clauses in the same sentence (subordinating conjunctions make one of the clauses subordinate to the other, so that it no longer functions as an independent clause; colons turn one clause into an introductory clause; and semicolons make the clauses separate sentences). There are only a few coordinating conjunctions, and the acronym FANBOYS is usually used to remember them: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So. Subordinating conjunctions alert the reader to a logical relationship within a sentence, often one that will only become explicit later in the sentence. Because they are used to set up expectations for future logical relationships in this way, faulty usage can be very confusing. “Because Jane hurt her ankle” would be, on its own, a confusing sentence fragment, as are “If Jane hurt her ankle,” and “because she could not go to work.” None of these examples can retain the subordinating conjunction while splitting the clauses into separate sentences, as it would create confusing sentence fragments that mark a logical relationship within a sentence that is not provided, despite being signalled. Conjunctive Adverb: Conjunctive adverbs are useful as transitional words that mark the logical relationship between sentences. Conjunctive adverbs frequently appear at the start of sentences, though they can, grammatically, appear almost anywhere in a sentence. There are several conjunctive adverbs – too many to list them here – but the most common are accordingly, additionally, anyway, certainly, consequently, finally, for example, for instance, further, furthermore, hence, however, in addition, in conclusion, indeed, likewise, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, on the one/other hand, rather, regardless, subsequently, therefore, thus, and undoubtedly. Conjunctive adverbs are frequently confused with coordinating conjunctions, but there is an important difference between them: while coordinating conjunctions can join two independent clauses into one sentence, conjunctive adverbs cannot. Where a conjunctive adverb is the link between two independent clauses, those clauses must remain separate sentences. Consider the following examples, which compare how coordinating conjunctions operate compared to conjunctive adverbs. Parts of Sentences Subject: The subject is who or what the sentence is about. The subject can be either a single noun or a noun-group. As this SVO pattern is not always followed, however, you cannot assume that the subject is the first noun in the sentence. Instead, the easiest place to begin when labelling the parts of a sentence is probably to start with the verbs (the main thing being done in a given sentence), then to work backwards, asking yourself who or what is performing the action described in the verb. (For an explanation of verbs, please see “Verbs” in “Chapter 1”) Direct Object: The direct object is who or what is receiving the action described in the verb. Example: Michael (subject) drove (verb) the golf ball (direct object) at the man in the ball retrieval vehicle. Indirect Object: The indirect object is best understood as the noun or pronoun for whom or at whom the action described by the verb is being performed. To find the indirect object, find the direct object, then ask the following question: to whom, for whom, or at whom is the direct object being directed by the verb? Example: Michael (subject) drove (verb) [what did he drive?] the golf ball (direct object) [for whom or at whom did he drive the ball?] at the man in the ball retrieval vehicle. Subject Compliments: Subject compliments are adjectives, nouns, or pronouns that follow a linking verb and provide more information about the subject without taking a direct object that differs from the subject. They are sort of like direct objects when the main verb is a linking verb. Object Compliments: Like a Subject Compliment, an Object Complement is an adjective, noun, or pronoun; whereas a subject compliment follows a linking verb to give more information about the subject, an object complement follows a direct object to state what the object becomes as a result of the action described in the verb. English as an SVO Language (Active and Passive Voice): While not all sentences need to follow this Subject > Verb > Object pattern (with the direct object coming before the indirect object), when something goes wrong with a sentence in English, it is often a result of presenting these elements in some other order. Though it would be silly to label these components in every sentence while drafting an essay, being able label them is extremely useful during the proofreading stage, especially when you encounter a sentence that is somehow not right, but you don’t know why and cannot think of how to fix it; in such instances, you will often find that labelling these three components and re-ordering them so that they fit the SVO pattern will improve the flow of the sentence, eliminate awkward prose, and generally increase clarity. When the object comes before the subject, this is known as Passive Voice, which is generally treated as an error in academic writing, because it is wordy (longer and more complex than it needs to be), because it can obscure the precise meaning and make the logic of the sentence confusing, and because it can result in sentences with no subject, where action is just happening without being done by anyone. Independent Clauses: An independent clause is simply a clause that is capable of being a complete sentence. This means there needs to be a subject (the person, place, thing, or concept doing something) and a predicate (a verb phrase that says something about the subject). Dependent/Subordinate Clauses: A dependent clause (also known as a subordinate clause) is a clause that cannot be a grammatical sentence on its own because it is dependent on another part of the sentence to be coherent and complete. When a dependent/subordinate clause is the only clause in a sentence, that sentence is a fragment, and typically a very confusing fragment. Clauses can be dependent or subordinate for a couple of reasons. First, they can contain a subordinating conjunction (because, since, while, etc.), words which flag a logical relationship within a sentence. Questions to Help Identify Fragments: Is there a verb? There ought to be a verb. If a sentence does not have a verb, either add a verb, or attach the verbless sentence to a related sentence. Is there a subject? There ought to be. Does the sentence open with a verb ending in -ing? There is not necessarily anything wrong if this is the case, but this can be a red flag for a missing subject (as well as for a misplaced or dangling modifier – see “Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers”). Is there a subordinating conjunction (because, if, since, until, when, where, while). If so, is there a clause it is subordinate to? If not, remove the subordinating conjunction, or add the fragment to a related sentence. Comma Splices and Fused Sentences I dislike the term “run-on sentence” for two reasons. The first reason is that students often emerge from high school with the idea that a “run-on sentence” is simply a sentence that is too long, and this is not the case. In fact, there is theoretically no maximum length for grammatically correct sentences in the English language; provided dependent and independent clauses are linked correctly, a sentence could theoretically be infinitely long (though this suggests a slight paradox, as it would have to end eventually to be a sentence). Several authors, including Henry James and Marcel Proust, are famous for writing incredibly long and complex sentences that are grammatically correct despite their length. The second reason I dislike the term “run-on sentence” is that it is an umbrella term that actually describes two distinct errors: the comma splice, and the fused sentence. Convert into Two Sentences: Because the sentences contain two independent clauses, and because an independent clause is a clause that is capable of being a grammatically correct sentence on its own, one could simply replace the comma with a period. Make One Clause an Introductory Clause: In instances where one clause can work as introductory clause where the second delivers the thing promised by the first, you can place the introductory clause first and follow it by a colon. Connect the Two Clauses Using Coordinating Conjunctions: The only words that can be used to connect such clauses while keeping them parallel to one another (that is, without making one subordinate to the other in some way) is to keep the comma and use coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so). Note that it would be a comma error not to use a comma in such instances. Commas with Format-Specific Requirements: Before the Last Item in a List or Series: Variously known as the “Oxford comma” or serial comma, this is the comma immediately preceding the conjunction before the final item in a list or series of three or more items. The use of the Oxford comma is either mandatory or prohibited in various formatting styles. In academic writing, it is almost always considered a requirement: MLA, APA, and (perhaps not surprisingly) the Oxford University Press all require the use of the oxford comma; the Chicago Manual of Style “strongly recommends” its use. However, The New York Times, The Associated Press, and countless other publishers forbid the Oxford comma, and it is often also prohibited in business and government documents. It is, thus, necessary to know the style rules of your specific publisher or the conventions governing your area or industry, as it is those rules, guidelines, and conventions that govern whether or not you use an Oxford comma. The fact that style guides disagree as to whether the Oxford comma should be used is a result of ongoing debates about which option creates more ambiguity: advocates of the Oxford comma often argue that using it prevents ambiguity, and detractors say that it introduces ambiguity, and both are right under certain circumstances. As it is not up to the individual writer whether they use the Oxford comma for a particular task, it is important to know how both including and omitting this comma can create ambiguity to be able to manage such problems. After Introductory Words and Phrases: Though there are different types of introductory words and phrases (conjunctive adverbs, absolute phrases, and prepositional phrases), they typically consist of adverbs or groups of words functioning as an adverb that come before the subject of the sentence and give additional information about the conditions under which the verb occurred. These transitional words and phrases usually must be followed by a comma when they appear at the start of sentences (and when the words or phrases are moved, they are typically enclosed in a pair of commas), though in some instances, it depends on the style guide. When in doubt, the best choice is generally to follow them with a comma. Conjunctive Adverbs: Conjunctive adverbs (“accordingly,” “additionally,” “however,” “in addition,” “indeed,” “therefore,” “thus,” etc.) are useful as transitional words that mark the logical relationship between sentences. They must always be followed by a comma when they appear at the start of sentences, and they must always be enclosed in a pair of commas when they appear elsewhere. Example: James was out of milk. However, he didn’t feel like going to the store for more. Absolute Phrases: An absolute phrase is a type of modifier phrase (see “Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers”) that consists of a participle form of a verb and usually a noun or pronoun (or a noun phrase). When an absolute phrase precedes the subject of a sentence, it must be followed by a comma. Example: Crying, Jack swore he would never go skiing again. Possession of a Singular Noun: To mark possession with a singular noun (or indefinite pronoun), add ’s. Example: Jack’s dog was not well trained. Words Ending With S: Add an ’s even if the noun ends with an s or s-sound. Plural Possessives: For nouns that are plural AND possessive, the apostrophe comes after the s. (Remember: first make it plural, then make it possessive). Example: The bodyguards’ handguns had to be checked at the door, even though they insisted they needed them to do their jobs. Shared Possession: SHARED Possession occurs when multiple nouns share ownership of something; in such cases, only the final noun is made possessive. Example: Have you heard what Alice and Greg’s idea of a good day of hunting consists of? Compound Noun Possession: To show possession of a compound noun, add ’s to the last element. Example: My brother-in-law’s business was starting to take off, and he had to hire half a dozen employees. Omitted Letter Apostrophes: Use apostrophes to show omitted letters (in contractions) or numbers (as in years). Example: It’s well-known that people mix up possession when dealing with definite pronouns, as the apostrophe marks omitted letters. 8) Nouns and Pronouns A pronoun is a word used in place of a specific noun, referred to as its antecedent. Pronouns are divided into a variety of groups, according to their role in the sentence. Noun/Pronoun Agreement: Traditionally, a pronoun and its antecedent had to agree in number and gender. Subject Pronouns vs Object Pronouns: Because pronouns change depending on their role in a sentence, to be able to correctly choose the appropriate pronoun it is necessary to be able to distinguish between the subject and objects of a sentence. If the pronoun or its antecedent is the subject of the sentence, then it needs to be a subject pronoun; if the pronoun is for a direct or indirect object, then it needs to be an object pronoun. First Person Second Person Third Person Subject Pronoun I, We (who) You (who) He, She, It, They (who) Object Pronoun Me (myself), Us (ourselves), (whom) You (yourself), (whom) Him (himself), Her (herself), It (itself), Them (themselves), (whom) Possessive Mine, Ours Ours His, Hers, Its, Theirs Reflexive Pronouns: Reflexive pronouns are special pronouns that are only used when there is a direct object in a sentence, but the object is the same person or thing as the subject. (This is distinct from a sentence that consists of a subject, a helping verb, and a subject compliment). The Semicolon (;) Between Independent Clauses: It is permissible to use semicolons between independent clauses (when a coordinating conjunction is not used). This functions the same as a period, and simply suggests that the two sentences are especially closely related. In Lists with Internal Punctuation: Semicolons usually function like periods. However, under some circumstances, they can also function like higher-order commas when you have a good number of commas within individual clauses that are, themselves, separated by commas. The most common instance of this occurs in complex lists, where each “item” in the list actually consists of several constituent items, separated by commas. Example: For breakfast, James ate whole-wheat toast, lightly browned and buttered, with a very small amount of blueberry jam; a brown egg, soft-boiled, and served in an egg holder that looked like a frog reading a newspaper; vegan pancakes, which were, ironically, slathered with butter before they were smothered with maple syrup; baby potatoes, roasted in olive oil until slightly crispy and seasoned with salt and pepper; and a bran muffin that was, unfortunately, only from his second favourite bakery. Common Semicolon Misuses: Semicolons Do Not Introduce Lists: While semicolons may occur within a list, they never introduce a list. In other words, semicolons never come between an introductory clause and the thing being introduced (as that’s what commas are for). Semicolons Do Not Come Before Coordinating Conjunctions: Semicolons are not used between independent clauses linked with a coordinating conjunction – commas are. The coordinating conjunction marks the relationship between these parallel clauses within a sentence, and the semicolon splits them into two different sentences, so using a semicolon here is sending contradictory signals. The Colon (:) The only use of the colon is following an introductory clause, before the thing introduced. Please note that the introductory phrase must be an independent clause (that is, it must be capable of being a complete sentence. The only difference between the uses listed below is that each introduces a different class of thing, which is then provided following the colon. Use Colons to Signal the Start of a List: One of the most common uses of a colon is following an introductory clause and the list it has introduced. Again, the introductory clause must be an independent clause (if you couldn’t put a period after it, a colon does not go after it). Before a Quotation: This is another instance of placing a colon between an introductory clause (which is an independent clause) and the thing introduced, though here, the thing introduced is a quotation rather than a list. Before an Appositive Description: Colons can be used before a special type of appositive, which describes the thing introduced earlier in the sentence. The main thing to notice is, again, that the introductory clause is an independent clause introducing something, which is then provided after the colon, and in this case, the thing introduced is a description that gives details promised in the introductory clause. Before an Explanation Colons can also be used to provide an explanation of something just stated, provided it was stated in an independent clause. 10) Subject/Verb Agreement Subjects and their verbs must agree in number: either both must be singular, or both must be plural. Subjects Containing “And”: When two or more nouns or pronouns are joined with “and” to form a compound subject, the verb becomes plural – and it doesn’t matter whether each individual noun/pronoun group was singular or plural. The reasoning behind this is that “and” indicates that both nouns/pronouns perform the action, and makes them plural; therefore, the verb must also be plural. Subjects Containing “Or”: When two or more singular nouns or pronouns are joined with “or” or “nor,” the verb must be singular (as only one of them could potentially perform the action). Plural Indefinite Pronouns: A smaller number of indefinite pronouns are considered plural: both, few, many, others, several. These pronouns must be used with plural verbs. Collective Nouns: Collective nouns are words for groups (for instance, “group,” “family,” “class,” “team,” “swarm,” “horde,” etc.). Though these words imply multiple people being part of the group, the nouns themselves are treated as singular and must agree with singular verbs, as they generally describe the group acting as a single unit. Countable Nouns: Countable nouns are nouns that have a singular and plural form, and take their name from the fact that you can count them: for example, 1 pen, 2 pens; 1 chair, 10 chairs. Countable nouns agree with singular verbs when singular, and plural verbs when plural. Uncountable Nouns: Uncountable nouns are nouns that imply quantity, but for which quantity cannot be counted in single units. For instance, a countable noun like “dollars” can be counted, so that you have, for instance, 10 dollars; “money,” however, is not countable: you cannot have “10 money.” Uncountable nouns of this sort are treated as singular nouns and must agree with singular verbs. There is and There are: In sentences that begin “there is” or “there are,” “there” is not the subject: in such cases, the subject follows the verb, and the verb must agree with the subject, not the word “there.” Ignore Phrases that Come Between Subject and Verb: The most common agreement error is making the verb agree with the noun nearest to it rather than with the subject. Nouns that come between the subject and the verb do not influence whether a verb is singular or plural, and must be ignored. 11) Misplaced and Dangling Modifiers Modifiers are simply words or phrases that modify or give additional information about another word in the sentence. The term “modifier” is a description of a generalized class of words and phrases that we have already discussed instances of elsewhere: adjectives are modifiers that modify nouns; adverbs are modifiers that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Modifiers aren’t always single words, though, and phrases containing adverbs and adjectives also often function as modifiers. Though adjectives, adverbs, and phrases can all be modifiers, it is useful to have the more general term “modifier” to be able to talk about the main errors that occur with all of them. There are two general types of errors that can occur with all modifiers: they accidentally modify the wrong word or phrase (or are “misplaced”), or they attempt to modify a word or phrase that hasn’t actually been given (or are “dangling”). Limiting Modifiers: Limiting modifiers (such as “almost,” “nearly,” “even,” “only,” and “just”) can act like adjectives or adverbs, depending on whether they come before nouns or verbs. As a general rule, modifiers such as these, which quantify or limit the meaning of another word, should be placed immediately before the word they modify (or in the rare instances when this is not possible, as near to the word they modify as possible). The difficulty is trying to figure out which option the author intended, and readers will just generally assume the author meant to say what they did say, and may not notice that an error has occurred. 12) Shifts, Mixed Constructions, and Faulty Parallelism All three types of errors – shifts, mixed constructions, and faulty parallelism – involve inconsistencies in what sort of sentences the writer is composing. In other words, they all involve establishing a pattern and then deviating from that pattern in a way that reduces clarity. Shifts: The term “shifts” is really the general term to describe when writing establishes one pattern and then shifts to another in a confusing way. The term “shifts” is usefully applied to a few specific problems – shifts in point of view, in verb tense, in mood and voice, and between indirect and direct quotations and questions – that do not fit nicely into the sub-categories of mixed constructions or problems with parallelism. Shifts in Point of View: All writing is in either the first person (“I/my,” “we/our”), second person (“you/your”), or third person (“he/his” “she/hers” “it/its” - or “they/theirs” when the person’s preferred pronoun is “they”). Writing should not shift from one perspective to another, as this can make the relationship between the author/speaker and the reader confusing. Shifts in Verb Tense: Writing that describes past events should stay in the past, and writing that describes events as occurring in the present should stay in the present. Shifts between verb tenses can be confusing and disorienting. Shifts in Mood: As well as tense, all verbs have what is known as a “mood.” Mood expresses the attitude towards the subject matter in the sentence. The indicative mood (also known as the declarative mood) states an objective fact. The subjunctive mood expresses a wish or possibility. Integrating Quotations Using Introductory Clauses: You can also use an introductory clause to incorporate quotations grammatically with an introductory clause. The important point to note here is that, in academic writing, introductory clauses must be independent clauses (that is, the introductory clause needs to be capable of being a complete sentence on its own). In other words, if the introductory clause would be a fragment on its own, it cannot be a grammatically complete introductory clause. It’s also important to note that the sentence needs to end after the quotation. Grammatically, the sentence must end once you have provided what the introductory clause promises. You also cannot use one introductory clause to introduce multiple quotations. While integrating quotations using introductory clauses is probably the easiest method once you get used to it, it is advisable to save this method for block quotations (quotations of four or more lines of text, which are formatted differently – see below), as it is the easiest way to set up longer quotations. Integration Quotations into Your Grammar: This method of quotation requires you to order the words how you would if all of them were your own words, but to still place quotation marks around the quoted material (as failing to do so would constitute plagiarism, and would defeat the purpose of quoting). It is the most advanced method of quotation integration, as it requires you to think about how the passage you are quoting can be made to fit into your sentence and to structure your sentence accordingly. Block Quotations: Block quotations are used when a quotation consists of four or more lines of a poem, or four or more lines of prose as they appear in your word processor document. When this occurs, the entire quotation is indented 0.5”, the quotations marks around it are removed, and the final period goes before the citation instead of after it. This first half of the sonnet signals the importance of metaphors to the overall structure of the poem. Modifying Quotations: It is sometimes necessary to modify quotations to make them fit into the grammar of your sentences. When this is done, any changes should be surrounded by square brackets; this is how you notify readers that changes have been made. It is also frequently necessary to omit parts of quotations, and when this is done ellipses (…) are used to mark the parts of the quotation you have removed. When part of a sentence is omitted, three dots are used; when the omission resumes after a period, four dots are used (one to mark the period, and three more to mark the ellipses. It is important to note that you don’t start or end quotations with ellipses; rather, you only use them when something has been removed from within the passage you are quoting. Since the original quotation was in the past tense, and as academic writing is always written in the present tense, it was necessary to modify the original so that the tense didn't shift, and square brackets were used to mark where this occurred. In addition, not all of this quotation is relevant to the point being made, so parts of it had to be deleted. It is important only to quote what is absolutely needed to make your argument; for instance, long and mostly irrelevant block quotations with only three or four relevant words are obvious word count padding and have no place in academic writing.