Early Childhood Physical and Cognitive Development PDF

Chapter 6:Early Childhood Physical and Cognitive Development Learning Objectives: Early Childhood Physical and Cognitive Development 1. Identify healthy nutritional practices 2. Describe recommended activity levels 3. Identify common illnesses and causes of dea...

Chapter 6:Early Childhood Physical and Cognitive Development Learning Objectives: Early Childhood Physical and Cognitive Development 1. Identify healthy nutritional practices 2. Describe recommended activity levels 3. Identify common illnesses and causes of death 4. Describe the changes in sleep 5. Summarize the overall physical growth 6. Describe the changes in brain maturation 7. Summarize sensory development including exteroception and enteroception 8. Summarize the changes in gross and fine motor skills 9. Describe when a child is ready for toilet training 10. Explain preoperational thought. 11. Describe tadpole drawing. 12. Describe memory capacity in early childhood. 13. Describe early childhood language growth. The next period of development is early childhood, ages two through six. We again consider nutrition and physical development first because cognitive and socioemotional development depend on physical maturation and physical maturation depends on nutrition and health. Rapid growth, brain growth and dependency on caregivers characterize early childhood. Temperament continues to unfold along with developing self-awareness. Parenting styles influence physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development during early childhood and contribute a great deal to individual differences in children of this age. However, other adults, siblings and peers also exert influences not seen in infants and toddlers. There is a reason children start first grade at 6-7 years of age. At the end of early childhood, they are ready for larger class sizes because they have developed self-regulation and other cognitive skills. Most also have the social skills needed for the friendships of middle childhood. Early Childhood Health Promoting early childhood health involves educating caregivers about children’s nutritional, activity, and social emotional needs as well as assisting with access to resources. In the United States, “households with young children may be eligible for the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC). WIC can help families with limited resources meet their child’s nutritional needs by providing nutritious foods to supplement diets. WIC serves children up to the age of 5 years who are at nutritional risk.” The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) provides temporary benefits to families with qualifying incomes for the purchase of foods and beverages. About one-half of all SNAP participants are children” (U.S. Department of Agriculture and U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2020, p. 68). You 141 should look over the material on the CDC website and Dietary Guidelines for Americans so that you can refer people to the sites and monitor the sites for changes in recommendations. The material in this section summarizes these sources. The DRI Calculator for Healthcare Professionals can be used to estimate calorie needs based on age, sex, height, weight, and activity level. Nutrition During early childhood children need between 1000 and 1600 calories a day depending on their size and activity level. Most of these calories should come from nutrient dense foods that provide vitamins, minerals, and nutrients without added sugar or salt. Added sugar provides unnecessary calories and causes dental cavities and obesity. Added salt contributes to high blood pressure during middle childhood and adolescence; but a habit of high salt intake may begin in early childhood (Yang et al., 2012). Nutrient dense foods include vegetables of all colors, fruit, whole grains, seafood, eggs, beans, peas, lentils, nuts, seeds, low fat dairy products and lean meat. Although dietary guidelines suggest that children over 2 consume only low fat dairy products; this recommendation is not supported by recent research (O’Sullivan et al., 2020; Vanderhout et al., 2020). Only 61% of children under age five eat the recommended foods. Many do not eat enough vegetables (1-1.5 cups/day) or drink enough milk (2-2.5 cups/day). Sixty percent of children eat too much added sugar, 88% eat too much added fat and 95% eat too much salt. Most American children eat enough fruit (1-1.5 cups/day), grains (3-5 ounces/day), and protein (2-4 ounces/day). In addition to providing a healthy diet, caregivers can promote healthy eating through modeling. Children imitate the behavior of the adults around them. Physical Activity SHAPE America's National Guidelines for Preschoolers Guideline 1: Preschoolers should accumulate at least 60 minutes of structured physical activity per day. Guideline 2: Preschoolers should engage in at least 60 minutes − and up to several hours − of unstructured physical activity per day and should not be sedentary for more than 60 minutes at a time, except when sleeping. Guideline 3: Preschoolers should develop competence in fundamental movement and motor skills that will serve as the building blocks for more advanced physical activity. Guideline 4: Whenever possible, caregivers should provide preschoolers with indoor and outdoor areas that meet or exceed recommended safety standards for performing large-muscle activities. 142  Guideline 5: Those in charge of preschoolers’ health and well-being are responsible for understanding the importance of physical activity and promoting movement skills by providing opportunities for structured and unstructured physical activity. Table 6-1. SHAPE Guidelines from https://www.shapeamerica.org/standards/guidelines/activestart.aspx Physical activity enables young children to integrate sensory experience with motor skills and develop coordination. Physical activity is important for cardiovascular health and fitness, muscular strength and endurance, reduction in depression and anxiety, and academic achievement (Tucker, 2008). The CDC recommends young children “be physically active throughout the day for growth and development.” And says that “adult caregivers should encourage children to be active when they play” (CDC, 2022). The World Health Organization Guidelines are more specific. According to the WHO, “young children should spend at least 180 minutes in a variety of types of physical activities at any intensity, of which at least 60 minutes is moderate- to vigorous intensity physical activity, spread throughout the day; more is better.” Young children should “not be restrained for more than 1 hour at a time (e.g. prams/ strollers) or sit for extended periods of time. Sedentary screen time should be no more than 1 hour; less is better. When sedentary, engaging in reading and storytelling with a caregiver is encouraged.” The Society of Health and Physical Educators’ Guidelines are in Table 1. Only half of children in the US and other WEIRD countries get the recommended amount of physical activity (Tucker, 2008). Sleep During early childhood, children need 10-13 hours of sleep each day. At two years of age children usually nap once a day for 1-2 hours; daytime sleeping stops by age 5 (Jiang, 2019). Children in early childhood have the same sleep stages as adults but their sleep cycles are shorter (Jiang, 2019). Sleep at night and during naps for younger children is important for learning and memory consolidation (Jiang, 2019). Thirty percent of parents of three year old children report sleep problems (O’Callaghan et al., 2010). Sleep problems tend to decline over the preschool years but may persist and coexist with attention, mood, and behavioral problems (Gregory & O’connor, 2002; O’Callaghan et al., 2010). Although sleep problems are connected to self- regulation issues, sleep problems and self-regulation both predict how well children do in school (Williams et al., 2016). Sleep problems include difficulty going to sleep, staying asleep and waking up too early in the morning. Sleep problems are defined by how often the problem occurs, ‘problems on four or more nights a week, or more than half the time?’ and type of problem: ‘difficulty getting off to sleep at night’; ‘not happy to sleep alone’; ‘waking during the night’; and ‘restless sleep’ (Williams et al., 2016). 143 What can caregivers do to support young children’s sleep? Sleep Hygiene for Early Childhood Bedtime Routine: use a bedtime routine (e.g., bath and book) Physiological: limit physical activity and food & water intake 1-2 hours prior to bedtime Behavioral Arousal: limit screen time and exciting activities right before bed Cognitive/Emotional: provide reassuring thoughts & feelings Sleep Environment: low noise, low light, & low temperature; own bed Sleep Stability: provide regularity of going to bed and waking up times Daytime Sleep: reduce napping if interfering with nighttime sleep Substances: avoid caffeine containing beverages during early childhood Table 6-2. Sleep Hygiene for Early Childhood Table 2 shows sleep hygiene practices that may be useful for parents to know (Wilson et al., 2015). Sleep hygiene practices improve bedtime resistance even for children struggling with self-regulation (Wilson et al., 2015). Surveys of American families find that many caregivers respond to children’s sleep problems by co-sleeping (Madansky & Edelbrock, 1990). Only 11% of young children always co-sleep and 44% never co-sleep. Co-sleeping tends to decline during early childhood (Madansky & Edelbrock, 1990). Reasons parents give for co-sleeping include child sleep problem, illness, and fears. Because child sleep problems may be a sign of mental health issues, parents should seek professional consultation if sleep problems persist. Firm and loving parenting does not always fix sleep problems because sleep issues may be a biological trait some children have (Wilson et al., 2015). Early Childhood Death and Illness Rate per Rate per Rank Infant (