KINE1P88 Final Exam Review PDF

Chapter 6 - Physiological Principles ATP = Power stroke with Myosin Human Cardiovascular System (dual system) Left Side: Systemic circuit Right Side: Pulmonary circuit Blood Flow 1.​ Superior & Inferior vena cava 2.​ right atrium 3.​ tricuspid valve 4.​ right ventricle 5.​ pulmonar...

Chapter 6 - Physiological Principles ATP = Power stroke with Myosin Human Cardiovascular System (dual system) Left Side: Systemic circuit Right Side: Pulmonary circuit Blood Flow 1.​ Superior & Inferior vena cava 2.​ right atrium 3.​ tricuspid valve 4.​ right ventricle 5.​ pulmonary valve 6.​ pulmonary arteries 7.​ pulmonary veins 8.​ left atrium 9.​ mitral valve 10.​left ventricle 11.​aortic valve 12.​aorta Conduction System of the Heart Structure Function Sinoatrial (SA) node -​ beginning of heart electrical activation which tells the Atria to contract first -​ Pacemaker of the heart Atrioventricular (AV) node -​ causes ~100ms delay in the electrical activation -​ allows ventricles to fill with blood Atrioventricular Bundle(s) -​ transmits activation down the IV Septum Purkinje Fibers -​ facilitate contraction of ventricles from BOTTOM to the TOP Systole: Contraction Diastole: Relaxation Cardiac Output ​ a measurement of the amount of blood pumped by each ventricle in 1 minute Stroke Volume: the amount of blood pumped by each ventricle Heart Rate: contractions per minute To calculate: SV x HR Major Factors Influencing Cardiac Output Stroke Volume ​ Heart size ​ Fitness levels ​ Gender ​ Contractility ​ Duration of contraction ​ Preload (EDV) ​ Afterload (resistance) Heart Rate ​ Autonomic innervation ​ Hormones ​ Fitness levels ​ Age Conducting Zone = organs and structures NOT directly involved in gas exchange Respiratory Zone = gas exchange occurs Pharynx: tube formed by skeletal muscle and lined by mucous membrane that continues into the nasal cavities Three Major Regions: ​ nasopharynx - filtering out particles and humidifying air (also heats air) ​ oropharynx - passageway for air and food/drink ​ laryngopharynx - separate Respiratory and Digestive systems Alveolus: one of the many small, grape-like sacs that are attached to the alveolar ducts. Inspiration vs. Expiration Inspiration ​ Active ​ the process of air entering the lungs ​ volume of thoracic cavity increases when the lungs inhale and muscles contract ​ thoracic pressure decreases Expiration ​ Passive ​ the process of air leaving the lungs  ​ Volume of thoracic cavity decreases when the lungs exhale air and muscles relax ​ thoracic pressure increases Responses of the cardiorespiratory system to exercise Short-Term Adaptations: ​ increased heart rate, increased cardiac output, and increased blood pressure (stronger systolic contraction) ​ increased breathing rate and volume (increased cardiorespiratory load and increased ATP availability) Long-Term Adaptations: ​ higher peak cardiac output ​ higher blood volume and capacity/afficiency to O2 ​ more efficient gas exchange in lungs Chapter 7 - Biomechanical Principles Biomechanics: the application of principles of mechanics to the study of living systems. Mechanics: the interaction between forces and objects. Description of position and degrees of freedom Position: linear and 3D Orientation: angular and 3D **Figures 7.2 and 7.3** Newtons Laws of force and motion First Law (law of Inertia): “statics” ​ An object remains in a state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless it is acted on by a change of force. ​ Static = when an object is moving at a constant velocity (even zero) Second Law (law of Momentum and Force): “dynamics” ​ the change of motion of an object is proportional to the force impressed. ​ F = ma (momentum: mostly constant, acceleration: change in velocity) ​ Dynamic = when an object is changing velocity due to the application of some applied force. Third Law (law of Reaction): ​ To every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction. ​ When two objects interact, each will experience the same applied force but the directions will be completely opposite Definition of Force ​ causes an object to change velocity (accelerate or decelerate) ○​ Static: acceleration = 0 ○​ Dynamic: acceleration = 0 ​ measured in Newtons (N) ​ Ex. Friction or human jumping Definition of Torque (Moment) ​ a force that causes an object to rotate (affected by BOTH force & distance) ​ Torque = force x moment arm (units = Nm) ​ Moment Arm: perpendicular distance from the force to the axis of rotation at a body joint ​ Ex. Pedalling a bicycle or rotation of hand Components of a Lever System Force (effort): forces generated by muscle tension Load (resistance): forces from external environment Fulcrum (pivot): point of rotation or joint Lever Systems First-Class Lever: ​ effort and load on opposite sides of joint ​ Ex. Neck flexion/extension Second-Class Lever: ​ load and effort on same side ​ effort force has LARGER Moment Arm (mechanical advantage) ​ Ex. Ankle plantarflexion/dorsiflexion Third-Class Lever: ​ load and effort on same side ​ effort force has SMALLER Moment Arm (mechanical disadvantage) ​ Ex. Elbow flexion Forces Related to Human Movement Internal Forces: “Effort” ​ muscle tension ​ pressure (thoracic pressure) ​ tendon/ligament tension (ACL) ​ compression of a joint (meniscus) External Forces: “Resistance” ​ gravitational force (weight) ​ friction/resistance forces ​ momentum ​ reaction forces Acute Vs. Chronic Injuries Acute: occur from a single force applied to a biological tissue that exceeds its predefined tissue tolerance Ex. Tendon strain Chronic: occur from sustained low-force exposures that cause the tissue tolerance to degrade over time Ex. Golfers elbow **Figure 7.9** Free-Body Diagrams ​ A common tool used by biomechanics to quantify the exposure of body segments to internal and external forces and moments Information Provided From Different Data For FBD: Kinematics ​ position, velocity & acceleration of body & location of an applied force Kinetics ​ magnitude & direction of an applied force Anthropometrics ​ Where in the arm is the Center of mass? ​ Where do muscles attach? **Figure 7.10** Chapter 8 - The Control of Human Movement **Figure 8.2. Receptor classification by cell type** Location-Based Classifications Exteroceptor: coding for changes in our external environment (vision, hearing, smell, taste) Interoceptor: coding for changes in our internal environment (hunger, pain, pressure) Proprioceptor: codes for body pose or position Function-Based Classifications Chemoreceptor: ​ presence of a chemical or molecule ​ Ex. Taste/smell Osmoreceptor: ​ codes for concentration ​ Ex. Thirst/hunger Nociceptor: ​ codes for pain Thermoreceptor: ​ codes for changes in temperature Mechanoreceptor: ​ codes for physical stimuli Somatosensation ​ the group of sensory modalities that are associated with touch, proprioception, and interoception. ​ modalities include: pressure, vibration, light touch, tickle, itch, temperature, pain, proprioception, and kinesthesia Table 8.1. Mechanoreceptors of Somatosensation Name Location(s) Stimuli Free Nerve Ending skin, eye, tongue, joint pain, temp, mechanical capsules, organs deformation Merkel’s Discs skin -​ skin stretch Ruffini’s Corpuscle skin -​ vibration Meissner’s Corpuscle skin -​ hair movement Pacinian Corpuscle skin Hair Follicle Plexus skin Muscle Spindle skeletal muscle muscle stretch (change in length) Golgi Tendon Organ skeletal muscle tendons muscle tension force (GTO) Muscle Spindles and GTOs Muscle Spindle: Receptor location - effector muscle belly Receptor information - change in length Relevance - excitatory reflex (plyometrics) GTO: Receptor location - effector muscle tendon Receptor information - tension/force Relevance - inhibitory reflex (PNF stretching) **Figure 8.4** Primary Motion Cortex and Motor Unit Innervation Ratios Primary motor cortex: somatotopic organization (parietal lobe) Innervation ratio: # of muscle fibers per alpha motor neuron **Figure 8.5** Motor Unit Small Motor Unit: ​ increased control ​ found in face & hands Large Motor Unit: ​ decreased control ​ found in back muscles **Figure 8.6** Roles of Muscle Contraction Agonist (large) ​ “prime mover” ​ generates most force (effort) to cause movement ​ active concentrically, eccentrically or isometrically Antagonist (large) ​ works in opposition to Agonist ​ often help to slow down movements ​ active concentrically, eccentrically or isometrically Synergist (small) ​ works synergistically (together) with Agonist ​ help to initiate movement ​ active concentrically, eccentrically or isometrically Fixator (small) ​ stabilize a joint to decrease movement Relevance to Fitness and Exercise Cuing movement: ​ information from somatosensory system ​ learning a new motor skill PNF stretching: ​ inhibitory reflex with GTO ​ increased stretch after brief contraction Plyometrics: ​ ballistic movements = rapid muscle stretch ​ activate excitatory stretch reflex ​ increased muscle force Instability training: ​ increased activation of synergist & fixator muscles ​ decreased injury  Chapter 9 - Functional Anatomy Functional Anatomy ​ uses the basic structural anatomy we have been discussing to this point and focuses on understanding the significance of the structures of the musculoskeletal system within a movement setting. **Figure 9.2 Handheld goniometer** Typically, there are two different types of ROM assessment Active ROM: ​ maximum - minimum ​ person moves through range (muscles are active) Passive ROM: ​ maximum - minimum ​ somebody moves joint for the person (muscles are OFF) Classification Type of End Feel Motion Limiter Example bony contact of bones elbow extension Normal capsular joint capsule hip rotation stretch springy muscle/tendon shoulder stretch abduction approximation body contact elbow flexion muscle guarding injured muscle, pain, muscle strain (spasm) tendon, or joint Abnormal springy block torn cartilage torn meniscus in knee loose/empty lack of limitation torn ligament/capsule spongy swelling acute sprain or inflamed bursa **Review three viewpoints of posture assessment** **Review Upper crossed vs. Lower crossed syndrome** **Review pg.113 table** **Figure 9.5** Exercise Movement Movement Movement Agonist Agonist Synergist Antagonis Type Plane Axis Muscle Contractio Muscle t Muscle n Type UP Phase elbow flexion sagittal frontal biceps brachii concentric brachalis triceps brachii brachioradilis DOWN Phase elbow sagittal frontal biceps brachii eccentric brachalis triceps brachii extension brachioradilis Chapter 10 - Exercise Training Principles Primary Components of Physical Secondary Components of Physical Fitness Fitness muscle strength injury prevention (“live longer”) -​ increased muscle force/tension cardiovascular (aerobic) health balance -​ increased energy (ATP) -​ decreased risk of falling availability body composition mental health -​ ratio of lean to fat mass muscle endurance coordination -​ ability to sustain contraction -​ ability to produce smooth movement mobility/flexibility agility or reaction time -​ active/passive ROM -​ quick responses Traditional/Isolation Method (OPEN) Functional/Compound Method (CLOSED) ​ focuses on individual ​ focuses on multiple components components of fitness and train of fitness  each separately ​ works on multiple muscles ​ fewer muscles worked across across more than one joint joint ​ increases body awareness ​ requires less coordination coordination ​ Ex. Leg extension ​ Ex. Deadlift The Said Principle Specific: ​ improvements that occur are dictated by the SPECIFIC program ○​ Align the program to persons goals Adaptation: ​ body will adapt to meet demands of exercise ○​ Updating a program to train new goal Imposed: ​ the person needs to “buy in”, without any training, NO ADAPTATION ○​ Develop report with person Demands: ​ the tips of exercise program designed ○​ Program fits the person Progressive Overload ​ gradual increases in the stress placed upon them during exercise training. ​ **Figure 10.2** **Figure 10.3. Effects of movement speed on functional strength gains Factors Affecting Strength/Performace 1.​ Type of Muscle Fiber ​ Fast twitch vs. Slow twitch ​ fast = increased force, decreased endurance ​ slow = decreased force, increased endurance ​ large genetic component 2.​ Age ​ rate of adaptation peaks 20-30 years ​ slower adaptation with increased age 3.​ Sex ​ circulating hormones (ie Testosterone) can increase rate of adaptation to exercise 4.​ Anthropometrics ​ size/proportions ​ longer limbs = increased ROM & mechanical disadvantage Plateaus: decreased rate of adaptation Approaches to Avoid Plateaus 1.​ Exercise Type ​ Move from OPEN chain —> CLOSED chain ​ switch to more challenging exercises 2.​ Eccentric Focus ​ Eccentric contractions to increase hypertrophy and muscle growth 3.​ Pyramids ​ Endurance —> Strength ​ set 1 = light load, high reps/ set 2 = medium load, medium reps/ set 3 = high load, low reps and then back down